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NOTES  ON 

WESTERN  RANGE 

FORBS: 

Equisetaceae 
through 

Fumariaceae 


By 

William  A.  Dayton 

Formerly  Chief,  Division  of  Dendrology 

and  Range  Forage  Investigations,  Forest  Service 


Forest  Service 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Washington,  D.  G. 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction   ._.., 1 

Horsetail  family  (Equisetaceae) _ 2 

Clubmoss  family  (Lycopodiaceae) _.__. 5 

Polypody  family  (Polypodiaceae) 7 

Lily  family  (Liliaceae) 12 

Iris  family   (Iridaceae) 56 

Orchid  family  (Orchidaceae) 61 

Nettle  family  (Urticaceae) _.__ 62 

Buckwheat  family  (Polygonaceae) 64 

Goosefoot  family  (Chenopodiaceae) 85 

Amaranth  family  ( Amaranthaceae) 98 

Four-o'clock  family  (Nyctaginaceae,  syn.  Allioniaceae) 105 

Portulaca  family  (Portulacaceae) 116 

Pink  family  (Caryophyllaceae) _.  123 

Buttercup  family    (Ranunculaceae) 143 

Barberry  family  (Berberidaceae)  ^^ 206 

Poppy  family  (Papaveraceae) 207 

Fumitory  family  (Fumariaceae) 216 

Literature  cited 224 

Index    235 


Issued  February  1960 


For  sale  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  U.S.  Government  Printing  Office 
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NOTES   ON   WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS 

EQUISETAGEAE  THROUGH 

FUMARIAGEAE 

By  William  A.  Dayton 

Formerly  Chief,  Division  of  Dendrology  and  Range 
Forage  Investigations,  Forest  Service'^ 


INTRODUCTION 

Annotated  range  plant  collecting  by  the  Forest  Service  began 
in  1907.  These  earliest  collections,  however,  were  deposited  in  the 
United  States  National  Herbarium.  In  1910  the  Forest  Service 
Herbarium  in  Washington,  D.C.,  was  started.  This  assemblage  of 
annotated  western  range  plant  specimens  is,  almost  without  ques- 
tion, the  largest  in  the  country.  It  represents  the  work  of  well  over 
a  thousand  employees  and  is  of  considerable  importance  taxonom- 
ically,  but  primarily  it  is  a  mine  of  information  on  the  distribution, 
ecology,  economic  values,  and  life  history  of  perhaps  10,000  or  so 
range  plants  inhabiting  the  11  Far  Western  States.  The  serial  num- 
bering of  these  plants,  now  reaching  about  125,000  specimens, 
started  August  4,  1911,  there  being  no  record  of  those  submitted 
prior  to  that  date. 

Economic  notes  were  prepared,  chiefly  by  the  writer,  for  about 
3,000  species,  mostly  on  cards.  In  addition,  during  reconnaissance 
for  mapping  vegetation  of  certain  national  forests  of  special  graz- 
ing importance,  some  members  of  the  crews  also  annotated  range 
plants  on  cards  and  prepared  palatability  tables.  These  manu- 
script notes  and  data  on  collection  forms  of  Forest  Service  Herba- 
rium plant  specimens,  as  well  as  personal  observations  and  re- 
search, furnish  the  basis  for  this  handbook. 

Range  vegetation  is  customarily  divided  into  four  categories: 
grasses,  grasslike  plants  (primarily  sedges  and  rushes),  forbs 
(weeds), 2  and  shrubs  (woody  plants).  Among  these,  forbs  are  by 

'Mr.  Dayton  retired  in  December  1955  and  served  from  then  until  his  death 
on  October  20,  1958,  as  a  Collaborator  with  the  Forest  Service. 

^Unfortunately,  in  dealing  with  this  group  of  plants  we  enter  the  field  of 
semantics.  The  western  stockman's  term  "weed"  covers  nongrasslike  herbs 
whether  palatable  or  nonpalatable,  injurious  or  harmless,  desirable  or  unde- 
sirable. And,  from  an  etymological  standpoint,  "forb"  is  objectionable.  The 
Greek  from  which  it  is  anglicized  means  food — especially  forage  or  fodder,  and 
applies  primarily  to  grasses ;  moreover,  its  widened  usage  to  cover  plants  which 
do  not  produce  forage  and  may  even  be  harmful,  is  naturally  quite  arbitrary. 
Despite  all  this,  the  term  is  now  widely  sanctioned  by  usage. 


2    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

far  the  most  numerous.  Unlike  the  other  three  groups,  they  seldom 
dominate  other  vegetation,  but  rather  are  found  as  admixtures  in 
grasslands  or  in  the  understories  of  forest  and  brush  types. 
P^xceptions,  of  course,  are  found  in  temporary  associations,  such  as 
the  first  and  second  "weed  stages,"  as  aftermath  of  destructive 
grazing  and  erosion,  described  by  Sampson  (177).-' 

Of  all  plant  families,  grasses  admittedly  are  the  most  important 
for  range  forage,  and  their  poisonous  or  otherwise  undesirable 
species  are  relatively  few.  Forbs  (range  weeds),  on  the  other 
hand,  vary  enormously  in  palatability,  and  they  embrace  a  large 
majority  of  our  poisonous  plants.  However,  because  of  their  great 
number,  diversity,  and  ubiqu-ity,  they  are  of  great  importance  to 
all  kinds  of  livestock  and  herbivorous  wildlife  but  perhaps  espe- 
cially so  to  sheep.  The  genera  and  species  annotated  for  the  various 
families  included  here  were  selected  on  the  basis  of  importance 
(for  grazing,  as  poisonous  plants,  etc.)  ;  interest  (peculiarities, 
miscellaneous  values)  ;  and  commonness  and  abundance.  Because 
only  about  one-fourth  of  the  range  forbs  in  the  11  Far  Western 
States  are  covered  here,  it  is  hoped  that  someone  will  carry  this 
work  to  completion. 

Although  this  handbook  is  concerned  primarily  with  vascular 
plants,  the  nonvascular  algae,  fungi,  lichens,  mosses,  and  liver- 
worts are  perhaps  worthy  of  mention.  Certain  algae,  such  as  spe- 
cies of  the  genera  Nostoc  and  Anabaena^  often  cause  bad  odors  and 
taste  in  water  and  are  frequently,  but  apparently  incorrectly  (151, 
p.  186),  accused  of  poisoning  livestock.  Some  parasitic  fungi, 
such  as  rusts  and  smuts,  may  be  injurious  to  livestock,  as  is  moldy 
hay.  Squirrels  and  other  wildlife  are  fond  of  mushrooms  and  other 
edible  fungi,  and  cattle  and  other  livestock  sometimes  crop  mush- 
rooms (Agaricus  spp.,  et  al.).  The  fondness  of  swine  for  truffles 
is  well  known.  The  writer  is  not  aware  of  any  case  where  domestic 
livestock  have  voluntarily  eaten  amanitas  and  other  toxic  fungi. 

In  the  tundras  of  the  Arctic,  reindeermoss  [Cladonia  rangiferina 
(L.)  Web.]  and  related  species  are  noted  as  highly  important  for- 
age for  reindeer,  caribou,  muskox,  and  other  native  herbivores 
(199),  and  in  Scandinavia  these  small  shrublike  lichens  are  har- 
vested for  cattle  (122,  150).  Bearded  tree  lichens,  such  as  species 
of  Vsnea  and  Alectoria,  when  abundant  and  dry,  may  be  serious 
forest  fire  hazards.  One  of  the  very  few  parmelias  growing  on  bare 
soil,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  east  to  Nebraska  and  North  Dakota, 
is  Parmelia  molliuscula  Ach.  This  gray-green  lichen  blows  into 
drifts  and,  on  winter  range  where  better  feed  is  unavailable  or 
scarce,  it  may  be  eaten  by  livestock,  especially  sheep  and  cattle ; 
it  causes  paralysis  of  the  hind  legs  (15). 

HORSETAIL  FAMILY  (EQUISETACEAE) 

This  is  a  monotypic  family,  now  represented  solely  by  the  genus 
Equisetum,  although  in  the  Carboniferous  epoch  the  family  was 
richly  developed,  vast  forests  of  tree  calamites  entering  into  the 

•■Italic  numbers  in  parentheses  refer  to  Literature  Cited,  p.  224. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  3 

composition  of  our  coalbeds  of  today.  The  generic  name  Equise- 
tum,  while  perhaps  not  classical  Latin,  is  unquestionably  ancient; 
it  derives  from  Latin  eqnus  (horse)  +  seta  (bristle,  or  strong, 
coarse  hair,  horsehair  being  seta  equina).  The  famous  pre-Linnean 
botanist  Tournefort,  in  his  Institutiones  Rei  Herbariae,  says  that 
the  name  derives  "a  foliorum  forma"  (i.  e.,  the  form  of  the  leaves)  ; 
presumably  the  numerous  fine  branches  are  referred  to. 

Horsetail  (Equisetum) 

This  genus,  often  also  called  scouring-rush,  consists  of  about 
25  species,  mostly  occupying  wet  or  moist  sites,  widely  distributed 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere ;  a  few  species,  however,  are  more 
localized.  Horsetails  are  somewhat  rushlike  plants,  perennial  from 
dark-colored,  extensively  creeping  and  branching  rootstocks 
(rhizomes).  The  aerial  stems,  mostly  erect,  may  be  annual  or 
perennial;  they  are  cylindrical,  fluted  and  silicious,  with  solid 
joints  (nodes)  and  mostly  hollow  internodes,  often  with  whorled 
branches  at  the  nodes.  The  small  leaves  are  united  lengthwise 
into  sheathlike  structures  ("sheaths")  at  the  stemjoints,  or  nodes, 
their  tips  ("teeth")  fused  together  or  free.  The  minute  fruiting 
spores  are  provided  with  four  spiral  ribbonlike  "elaters"  which 
assist  in  their  propulsion  when  ripe,  and  are  produced  in  small, 
stalked,  shieldlike  sporangia  borne  in  conelike  fruiting  spikes  at 
the  tips  of  the  fertile  stems. 

Horsetail  species  are  largely  distinguished  by  such  characters 
as  size  and  robustness  of  stems,  likeness  or  unlikeness  of  sterile 
and  fertile  stems,  number  of  angles  or  grooves  in  stems,  color  and 
persistence  of  aerial  stems,  relative  size  of  stem  cavities,  and  num- 
ber of  leaves  at  a  node.  Horsetails,  as  a  rule,  are  not  highly  re- 
garded as  range  forage  but  frequently  may  be  an  important  constit- 
uent in  wild  hay.  When  fed  in  large  quantities,  however,  a  number 
of  the  species  are  known  to  cause  scours  and  sometimes  paralysis 
and  death.   Horses  are  the  class  of  stock  most  usually  affected. 

Field  horsetail  (Equisetum  arvense  L.),  as  the  scientific  name 
arvense  (of  fields)  indicates,  inhabits  fields,  old  meadows,  road- 
sides, railroad  embankments  and  the  like,  and  ranges  from  Green- 
land and  Newfoundland  to  Alaska  and  south  to  California,  New 
Mexico,  northeastern  Kansas,  Kentucky,  and  North  Carolina ;  also 
Europe  and  Asia.  The  plant  is  highly  variable;  its  aerial  stems 
are  annual,  the  sterile  and  fertile  stems  diflfering  so  markedly  as 
to  have  the  appearance  of  belonging  to  two  different  plants.  The 
short-lived  fertile  stems  appear  early  in  the  spring  before  the 
sterile  stems;  they  are  pale  brown  or  flesh  color,  usually  un- 
branched,  seldom  more  than  about  10  inches  high,  bearing  at  the 
tip  a  single  narrow  fruiting  cone;  the  sheaths  are  8  to  12  toothed. 

The  bright  green,  slender  sterile  stems  are  longitudinally  6  to 
14  furrowed,  from  4  inches  to  2  feet  (rarely  3  feet)  high;  the 
loose  whitish  sheaths  are  chaffy  and  about  12  toothed;  the  nu- 
merous branches  are  sharply  4  (occasionally  3)  angled,  with 
4-toothed  sheaths.  As  the  fertile  stems  wither  and  disappear  soon 
after  the  spores  are  shed,  the  sterile  stage  is  the  aspect  usually 


4         AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

seen  in  the  field.  The  plant  is  often  common  in  sandy  soils,  par- 
ticularly where  there  is  a  good  supply  of  moisture  at  least  during 
most  of  the  growing  season.  It  is  seldom  eaten  on  the  range  ex- 
cept accidentally  as  when  mixed  with  hay. 

Chesnut  and  Wilcox  (39,  p.  134)  refer  to  the  plant's  reputation 
of  being  poisonous  to  horses  but  indicate  that  no  cases  of  poison- 
ing have  been  reported  of  it  from  Montana  where  it  is  sometimes 
common.  They  state  that  "the  plant,  if  deleterious,  is  evidently 
so  only  on  account  of  its  harsh  scouring  action  in  the  mouth  and 
intestinal  tract."  Long  (123,  pp.  84-85)  reviews  considerable 
literature  on  this  plant  and  cites  authorities  both  to  the  effect  that 
the  green  plant  appears  to  be  harmless  and  also  that  horses  can  be 
fatally  poisoned  by  it.  A  case  of  sheep  poisoning  was  reported 
from  a  national  forest  in  Wyoming  in  which  this  species  was  sus- 
pected. Apparently  there  is  room  for  further  study  of  this  com- 
mon plant. 

Meadow  horsetail  (Equisetum  pratense  Ehrh.) — pratense  means 
of  meadows — is  closely  related  and  rather  similar  to  the  preceding 
species.  It  is  characteristic  of  moist  meadows,  rich  woods  and  the 
like,  often  in  limestone  formations,  widely  distributed  from  New- 
foundland and  New  Brunswick  to  Alaska  and  south  to  Montana, 
Colorado,  North  Dakota,  Iowa,  Michigan,  and  New  Jersey,  also 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  Compared  with  field  horsetail  the  paler 
green,  more  slender  mostly  3-  (instead  of  4-)  angled  stems  have 
the  hollow  central  part  much  narrower  (about  a  sixth  of  the  stem 
diameter),  the  internodes  rougher,  with  3  rows  of  small  silicious 
bristles  on  each  of  the  8  to  20  ridges,  the  teeth  of  the  branch  sheaths 
shortly  triangular  (deltoid)  instead  of  lance  shaped.  The  fertile 
stems  are  more  persistent,  becoming  branched  with  age,  and  not 
soon  withering  except  at  the  top.  The  palatability  to  range  live- 
stock is  negligible  to  low;  there  appears  to  be  no  record  of  its 
poisoning  range  animals. 

Another  related  species  is  marsh  horsetail  (Equisetum  palustre 
L.),  a  boreal  plant  of  circumpolar  distribution,  occurring  in 
Europe,  Asia  and,  in  North  America,  from  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador  to  Alaska  and  south  to  Oregon,  Wyoming,  Nebraska, 
Minnesota,  Illinois,  and  Pennsylvania,  in  marshes  (as  the  Latin 
name  palustre  indicates),  wet  woods,  along  shores,  etc.,  often  in 
limestone  areas.  Both  fertile  and  sterile  stems  are  alike,  green, 
slender,  conspicuously  5  to  10  angled  and  grooved,  with  very  small 
central  cavity,  and  loose  dilated  sheaths  with  dark,  usually  white- 
margined  teeth. 

Perhaps  marsh  horsetail  has  been  more  thoroughly  studied  from 
the  toxicological  standpoint  than  any  other  species  of  the  genus. 
Long  (123)  states  that  European  investigations  have  shown  that 
the  young  shoots,  which  incidentally  contain  the  least  silica,  are 
much  more  poisonous  than  the  old  stems,  and  that  a  dangerous 
nerve-poisoning  alkaloid,  equisetin,  has  been  isolated  from  this 
particular  species.  He  further  states  that  young  animals  appear 
to  succumb  sooner  than  older  ones;  that  grain-fed  animals  are 
more  resistant  than  others,  and  that  the  milk  yield  of  cattle  appears 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  5 

to  be  affected  by  the  plant,  loss  in  both  quality  and  quantity  being 
noted. 

Five  other  range  species  of  this  genus  worthy  of  mention  be- 
cause of  local  abundance,  though  probably  negligible  or  nearly  so 
as  forage  except  in  cases  of  overstocking  or  where  eaten  in  hay, 
are  as  follows : 

1.  Coiiimon  scouring-rush  (Equisetum  hyemale  L.),  the  species 
name  signifying  "winter"  because  of  the  evergreen  habit,  usually 
occurs  on  moist  sandy  sites  almost  throughout  North  America  and 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  Fertile  and  sterile  stems  are  alike,  mostly 
unbranched,  about  18  to  40  ridged,  1  to  4  feet  high,  with  narrow 
central  cavities,  the  fruiting  terminal  cones  tipped  by  a  firm  dark 
point;  the  relatively  short  sheaths  usually  have  two  black  bands, 
the  teeth  jointed  and  usually  deciduous.  This,  like  the  species  listed 
next,  was  formerly  much  used  for  scouring  floors. 

2.  Closely  related  to  Equisehim  hymale,  and  by  many  con- 
sidered a  large  variety  of  it,  is  stout  (or  giant)  scouring-rush  [E. 
praealtum  Raf.^  syns.  E.  robustum  A.  Br.,  E.  hyemale  var.  rohustiim 
(A.  Br.)  A.  A.  Eaton,  and  perhaps  E.  hyemale  var.  affine  (Engelm.) 
A.  A.  Eaton].  This  grows  in  colonies  and  has  stout  erect  stems 
often  5  to  10  feet  high  and  1  inch  thick  and  ranges  from  Newfound- 
land and  Quebec  to  southern  Alaska  and  south  to  California, 
Florida,  and  central  Mexico,  also  in  Asia.  Pammel  (151,  PV-  323- 
325)  describes  poisoning  of  cattle  and  horses  by  this  plant  under 
the  name  equisetosis.  Some  writers  retain  the  original  spelling 
prealtum  of  Rafinesque;  evidently  praealtum,  indicating  something 
comparatively  taller,  was  intended. 

3.  Another  closely  related  species  is  smooth  horsetail  (Equise- 
tum laevigatum  A.  Br.),  growing  in  about  neutral  soils  from 
Ontario  to  British  Columbia,  and  south  to  California,  Texas, 
Illinois,  and  Virginia;  also  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  It 
has  relatively  smooth  stems  of  one  type,  10  inches  to  31/2  feet  tall, 
the  sheaths  widened  upwards,  mostly  with  a  single  black  band, 
the  teeth  soon  falling ;  the  fruiting  cones  are  sharp  pointed. 

4.  Kansas  horsetail  (Equisetum  kansanum  Schaffn.)  is  con- 
sidered by  some  confluent  with  E.  laevigatuyn.  It  has  soft  weak 
rather  smooth  stems  with  relatively  large  cavities,  growing  up  to 
about  31/2  feet  high,  the  fruiting  cones  blunt  and  rounded,  and 
occurs  mostly  in  sandy  soils  from  Michigan  to  southern  British 
Columbia  and  south  to  California,  Texas,  and  into  northern 
Mexico. 

5.  Variegated  horsetail  (Equisetum,  variegatum,  Schleich.),  with 
slender  stems  8  to  16  inches  tall,  occupies  neutral  to  slightly  alka- 
line sites  from  Greenland,  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  to  Alaska 
and  south  to  Oregon,  Nevada,  Colorado,  Nebraska,  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  and  Pennsylvania ;  also  in  Europe  and  Asia.  The  sheath 
teeth  are  whitish  or  white  margined. 

CLUBMOSS  FAMILY  (LYGOPODIAGEAE) 

Unless  one  includes  in  this  family,  as  a  few  botanists  do,  the 
small  family  Psilotaceae  (represented  in  Florida  and  Australia), 


6         AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  except  for  a  rare  Australian  species  of  another  widely  distrib- 
uted genus,  Lycopodiaceae  consists  only  of  the  clubmoss  genus 
(Lycopodium),'^  with  about  600  species  chiefly  found  in  tropical 
mountains.  Lycopodium  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  all  living  plant 
genera,  extending  backwards  in  an  unbroken  line  almost  as  far  as 
the  Palaeozoic.  It  is  related  to  the  large  fossil  lycopod  tree  genus 
Lepidodendron,  the  most  important  contributor  to  the  coal  de- 
posits of  southern  Illinois,  an  aftermath  of  carboniferous  forests 
of  300  million  years  ago  or  so  (5). 

About  15  species  of  clubmosses  occur  in  the  United  States,  at 
least  6  or  7  of  which  have  well-marked  varieties.  They  are  peren- 
nial evergreen  somewhat  mosslike  plants,  with  underground  or 
trailing  and  also  erect  2-branching  stems,  the  true  roots  produced 
from  the  underside  of  the  stems  which  are  in  contact  with  the 
ground.  The  leaves  are  small,  crowded,  mostly  4  to  10  ranked.  The 
reproductive  spores  are  in  spore-cases  (sporangia)  borne  in  the 
axils  of  special  leaves  (sporophylls)  which  are  usually  rather  dif- 
ferent from  the  rest  of  the  foliage  and  often  borne  in  terminal  cone- 
like appendages.  The  species  are  distinguished  by  habit,  leaf  char- 
acters and  number  of  leaf  ranks,  presence  or  absence  of  sporophyll 
cones,  etc. 

The  majority  of  our  native  clubmosses  occur  also  in  the  Far 
Western  States,  often  in  moist  or  dry  woods.  Their  palatability  to 
domestic  livestock  is  nil.  Some  of  the  species,  particularly  ground- 
cedar  (Lycopodium  complanatum  L.,  and  its  variety  flahelliforme 
Fern.)?  a  boreal  and  eastern  species  getting  into  Washington, 
Idaho,  and  Montana,  and  groundpine  (L.  obscurum  L.),  another 
boreal  and  Asiatic  species  getting  as  far  south  as  some  of  the 
Eastern  States  and  the  Northwestern  States,  both  often  called 
"crowfoot,"  are  in  much  demand  as  Christmas  decorations.  Prac- 
tically all  the  species  are  also  in  ornamental  cultivation.  Clubmoss 
spores  are  often  used  as  an  easy  means  of  comparative  measure- 
ment on  a  microscope  slide ;  they  have  a  fairly  uniform  diameter 
of  about  40  microns  (211).  A  subject  worthy  of  further  study  is 
the  possible  relationship  of  the  highly  flammable  spores  of  club- 
mosses to  some  forest  fires  of  obscure  origin. 

Runningpine  (Lycopodium  clavatum  L.),  with  a  somewhat  simi- 
lar distribution  to  that  of  the  two  species  mentioned  above,  was 
formerly  an  important  drug  plant,  the  light  oily  sulfur-yellow 
powdery  4-sided  spores  (known  as  "vegetable  sulfur")  being  used 
as  a  dusting  powder  for  infants,  a  diuretic,  etc.  But  this  medic- 
inal use  according  to  the  latest  edition  of  the  United  States  Dis- 
pensatory (lJf7)  "has  fallen  into  complete  desuetude."  The  spores 
were  formerly  used  also  for  flashlight  powders,  and  the  Chinese 
used  those  of  some  of  their  native  species  in  the  manufacture  of 
fireworks.  The  spores  of  L.  clavatum  are  still  in  commercial  use  in 
pharmacy  in  pill  manufacture  for  facilitating  rolling  and  for  pre- 
venting adhesion  (21 6) . 


^The  generic  name    (from  Greek  lukos,  wolf,  +  pons,  podos,  foot)   corre- 
sponds with  another  common  name  of  clubmosses,  "wolffoot." 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  7 

POLYPODY  FAMILY  (POLYPODIAGEAE) 

Unless,  as  some  botanists  prefer,  two  other  groups — the  wood- 
fern  (Aspidiaceae)  and  brake  (Pteridaceae)  families — are  sepa- 
rated from  it,  the  polypody  family  of  ferns,^  embracing  about  200 
genera  and  an  estimated  5,600  to  7,000  species,  largely  tropical,  is 
much  the  largest  family  in  the  great  plant  division  Pteridophyta, 
ferns  and  fern  allies.  A  great  majority  of  Western  United  States 
ferns  belong  to  Polypodiaceae,  where  about  22  genera  and  110 
species  of  this  family  occur,  the  number  of  genera  and  species  in- 
creasing toward  the  south. 

As  in  all  the  higher,  or  vascular  spore-bearing  plants  (ferns, 
horsetails,  clubmosses,  etc.)  members  of  this  family  are  character- 
ized by  what  is  commonly  called  "alternation  of  generations,"  i.e., 
each  species  exists  in  two  entirely  different  phases,  the  sexual 
stage  (prothaUus,  or  gametophyte)  and  the  asexual  stage  (sporo- 
phyte).  The  conspicuous  sporophyte  stage  is  the  familiar  "fern" 
plant  of  everyday  life,  the  one  ordinarily  described  in  the  manuals 
and  other  literature.  The  spores,  or  powdery  fruiting  bodies  of  the 
sporophyte,  give  rise  on  germination  to  the  gametophyte,  or  sexual 
stage,  and  are  borne  in  rounded  organs  called  sporangia;  these 
sporangia  in  the  Polypodiaceae  are  stalked,  assembled  in  clusters 
(sori)  of  characteristic  shapes,  the  sori  frequently  with  a  more  or 
less  lidlike  covering,  the  indusium. 

All  United  States  Polypodiaceae  are  herbaceous,  perennial  from 
creeping  or  erect,  hairy  or  scaly  rootstocks.  Their  fronds,  or  leaves, 
come  up  from  the  ground  in  the  spring  coiled  like  a  bishop's 
crosier;  they  are  occasionally  simple  and  entire  but  are  usually 
more  or  less  cut  or  divided  and  are  frequently  simply  or  com- 
poundly  pinnate  or  pinnatifid;  fertile  (spore-bearing)  and  sterile 
leaves  may  be  similar  or  unlike.  As  a  rule  these  plants  are  not 
important  as  forage  plants,  at  least  for  domestic  livestock.  Brack- 
en, annotated  later,  is  one  of  the  very  few  range  ferns  that  is  at 
once  of  good  size,  widely  distributed,  common,  and  abundant. 

Maidenhair  (Adiantum  pedatum  L.),  a  well-known  graceful 
fern,  occurs  in  every  province  of  Canada  and  in  every  State  of  the 
United  States  except  for  the  southern  fringe  of  States  from  Florida 
to  Texas  and  Arizona.  From  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  westward 
it  chiefly  occurs  in  the  variety  aleuticum  Rupr.,  the  type  of  which 
came  from  the  Aleutian  Islands.  The  species  is  also  found  in 
Siberia,  China,  Japan,  northern  India,  and  parts  of  colder  and 
temperate  Asia. 

The  plant  is  perennial  from  a  slender  creeping  chaffy  much- 
rooting  rootstock,  the  fronds  or  leaves  8  to  20  inches  high,  forking 
at  the  sum.mit  of  the  shiny  brownish  or  blackish  leafstalk  (stipe), 
the  downcurving  branches  bearing  on  one  side  several  slender 
spreading  pinnate  divisions,  the  ultimate   "leaflets"    (pinnules) 

^The  word  fern  in  various  spellings  (such  as  fern,  ferns,  fearne,  fern,  and 
varn)  is  the  basis  of  an  almost  innumerable  number  of  place  and  family  names. 
With  Latin  pinna  and  Sanskrit  puma  it  is  cognate  with  feather,  featherlike 
leaves  being  a  characteristic  feature  of  this  family. 


8  AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

numerous,  short  stalked,  obliquely  triangular-oblong,  entire  on  the 
lower  margin,  cleft  and  fruiting  on  the  upper  margin.  The  Aleu- 
tian or  western  variety  differs  from  the  typical  form  in  its  stouter 
suberect  rootstock,  fewer  narrower  and  more  erect  leaf  divisions 
(jminae),  and  more  deeply  cleft  pinnules,  or  "leaflets." 

The  plant  is  always  local  in  occurrence,  where  it  may  be  plenti- 
ful, usually  occurring  in  moist  rich  shaded  wooded  sites,  frequently 
on  or  near  streams,  from  near  sea  level.  The  forage  value  to 
domestic  livestock  is  negligible  or  slight ;  it  is  reported  to  be  eaten 
by  mountain  goats  in  winter  to  some  extent.  It  is  prized  as  an 
ornamental  in  cultivation. 

Malefern  [Dryopteris  filix-ma.s  (L.)  Schott,  syn.  Aspidium  filix- 
mas  (L.)  Swartz],  a  large  plant  up  to  4  feet  high,  ranges  from 
Greenland,  Newfoundland,  and  Labrador  to  Alaska  and  south  to 
California,  Mexico,  western  Texas,  western  Oklahoma,  South  Da- 
kota, northern  Michigan,  Ontario,  and  Vermont;  also  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  north  Africa,  mostly  in  woods,  upland  pastures  and 
rocky  slopes,  chiefly  in  limestone  or  slatey  sites.  The  rootstocks 
are  thick  and  more  or  less  erect;  the  somewhat  leathery  fronds 
are  more  or  less  twice  pinnate,  1  to  3  feet  long,  and  6  to  11  inches 
wide;  the  fruiting  dots  (so7i)  are  rounded  kidney  shape  and 
borne  near  the  midveins. 

The  plant  ordinarily  is  not  touched  by  domestic  livestock ;  it  is 
undoubtedly  more  or  less  poisonous,  the  active  principle  appearing 
to  be  filicic  acid  (28,123).  Malefern  is,  however,  an  important 
medicinal  plant,  the  rootstocks  (rhizomes)  and  stalk  (stipe)  bases 
being  a  vermifuge  and  a  standard  remedy  for  tapeworm,  for 
which  purpose  the  closely  related  leather  woodfern  [Dryopteris 
marginalis  (L.)  A.  Gray],  sometimes  called  marginal  shieldfern, 
of  southern  Canada  and  the  Eastern  States  as  far  west  as  Arkansas 
and  Oklahoma,  is  often  substituted.  A  common  but  useless  adul- 
terant of  this  drug  is  the  rootstock  of  ladyfern  [Athyrium  filix- 
femina  (L.)  Roth],  a  delicate  fern  growing  almost  throughout 
Canada  and  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  temperate  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  reported  to  be  fair  elk  and  deer  feed  on  the  Olympic 
National  Forest,  Wash.  Ladyfern  is  known  to  contain  filicic  acid 
and,  for  that  fact,  if  it  were  palatable  to  domestic  livestock,  might 
be  injurious. 

Bulb  cloakfern  [JSotholaena  sinuata  (Lag.)  Kaulf.],  a  rather 
small  fern,  occurs  in  rock  crevices,  rocky  loams,  and  in  canyons, 
in  weed  and  brush  types,  often  on  limestone,  from  western  Okla- 
homa and  western  Texas,  through  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  to 
southern  California  and  south,  through  Mexico,  Central  America, 
the  West  Indies,  and  South  America  as  far  as  Chile.  As  might  be 
expected  from  its  enormous  range,  it  is  extremely  variable  and 
numerous  varieties  and  other  segregates  have  been  proposed. 

Kearney  and  Peebles  (109)  refer  to  Notholaefia  sinuata  as  very 
common  in  Arizona  between  3,000  and  7,000  feet.  The  fronds, 
about  4  to  12  inches  high,  are  simply  pinnate  with  coarsely  lobed 
leaflets  often  of  an  oblong  type,  densely  covered  with  scurfy  scales 
(paleaceous)  below  and  with  star-shaped  scales  above  which  tend 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  9 

to  disappear  with  age;  the  frond  stalks  have  rusty- woolly  tufts 
at  the  base  and  arise  from  a  thickened  woody  rootstock  with  bulb- 
like swellings.  This  fern  has  not  been  observed  to  be  grazed  on 
national  forests. 

A  smaller  variety  of  this  plant  with  much  smaller,  rounder,  and 
untoothed  or  few-toothed  leaflets  (pinnae)  is  called  jimmyfern 
and  was  formerly  identified  as  Notholaena  sinuata  var.  integerrima 
Hook.  However,  in  1942  Kearney  and  Peebles  (109)  indicated  that 
this  variety  is  confined  to  Mexico  and  that  United  States  material 
so-called  is  var.  creiiata  Lemmon  (syn.  N.  cochisensis  Goodding). 
In  a  later  edition  of  their  work  (110)  they  called  this  plant  var. 
cochisensis  (Goodd.)  Weatherby. 

Jimmyfern  llSolholaena  sinuata  var.  cochisensis  (Goodd.)  Weath- 
erby] is  now  known  to  be  an  important  Southwestern  stock-poison- 
ing plant.  Its  toxic  character  was  proved  in  1942  by  Mathews  (138) 
although,  strange  to  say,  in  1945  (139)  his  experiments  indicated 
that  the  typical  form  of  A^.  sinuata  is  not  toxic;  this  seems  to 
strengthen  his  argument  that  the  toxic  form  should  be  considered 
a  distinct  species  as  Goodding  originally  proposed. 

Jimmyfern  is  evidently  in  need  of  full  study,  especially  in  view 
of  its  enormous  range  and  great  variability.  Sperry,  et  al.  (184-) 
indicate  that  control  of  the  plant  is  difficult ;  losses  usually  occur 
in  winter;  death  may  occur  suddenly;  the  disease  occurs  in  sheep, 
goats,  and  cattle  in  that  order  of  severity ;  and  it  is  important  that 
livestock  have  ready  access  to  water  in  areas  where  jimmyfern 
is  prevalent.  The  common  name  arises  from  the  trembling  ner- 
vousness ("jimmies")  which  affected  animals  exhibit. 

Licorice-fern  [Polypodiiini  glycyrrhiza  D.C.  Eaton,  syns.  P. 
occidentale  (Hook.)  Maxon,  P.  vulgare  var.  occidentale  Hook.]  is 
a  Pacific  coastal  fern,  from  Alaska  to  San  Mateo  County,  Calif., 
growing  on  trees,  logs,  and  rocks  in  moist  spruce,  fir,  hemlock, 
Douglas-fir,  and  redwood  types.  Its  thin  pinnatifid  fronds  are  8 
inches  to  21/0  feet  long.  The  rootstocks  have  a  licoricelike  flavor 
and  are  relished  by  children;  also  locally  roasted  and  used  as  a 
confection.    Apparently  it  has  not  forage  importance. 

Giant  hollyfern  [Polystichuni  munitum  (Kaiilf.)  Presl,  syn. 
Aspidium  munitum  Kaulf.],  a  rather  coarse,  chiefly  Pacific  coastal 
fern,  is  often  abundant  in  wet  forests  from  Alaska  to  California 
but  occurs  inland  to  British  Columbia,  northern  Idaho,  and  north- 
western Montana.  The  fern,  tufted,  once-pinnate  fronds,  1  to  5 
feet  long,  arise  from  a  stout  woody  ascending  rootstock,  their 
stalks  (stipes)  copiously  brown-glossy-chaffy;  the  pinnae  ("leaf- 
lets") are  lance  shaped,  tapered,  and  margined  with  incurved, 
sharp,  bristly  teeth.  Burtt-Davy  (3A)  reports  that,  in  north- 
western California,  this  plant  "is  eaten  readily  by  calves  and  stock 
for  a  day  or  two  after  feeding  on  clover  on  the  ranges."  Giant 
hollyfern  is  often  called  "swordfern"  and  "Christmas-fern"  [names 
probably  better  applied,  respectively,  to  the  genus  Nephrolepis 
and  to  the  eastern  P.  acrostichoides  (Michx.)  Schott].  This  and 
other  species  of  the  genus  are  frequently  collected  as  Christmas 
greens. 


10   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Bracken  \Pteridium  aquilinvm  (L.)  Kuhn,  syn.  Pteris  aquilina 
L.  ]  (fig.  1),  "the  most  widely  distributed  of  all  ferns"  (Eaton) 
occurs,  in  various  varieties  and  forms,  almost  throughout  the 
world.  In  North  America  it  is  "everywhere"  (Underwood).  This 
fern  is  perennial  from  stout,  blackish,  cordlike,  widely  creeping 
rootstocks.  The  stalks  (stipes)  are  solitary,  straw  color  to  brown- 
ish, erect,  rigid,  swollen,  and  discolored  at  the  base,  naked  (not 
chaffy  as  in  many  ferns)  ;  the  fronds,  or  leaves,  more  or  less  tri- 
angular in  outline,  about  IV2  to  7  feet  long  (occasionally  even 
larger)  and  1  to  3I/2  feet  wide,  divided  into  3  main  divisions 
(ternate)  these  3  branches  each  again  divided  into  opposite  seg- 
ments (bipinnate),  and  these  segments  further  divided  into  op- 
posite oblong,  or  lance-shaped  ultimate  divisions  (pinnules),  the 
uppermost  pinnules  undivided,  the  lower  more  or  less  cleft. 

Bracken  occurs  in  this  country  in  at  least  two  common  varieties, 
western  bracken  (Pteridium  aquilinum  var.  pubescens  Underw.) 
and  eastern  bracken  [var.  latiusculutn  (Desv.)  Underw.,  syn.  P. 
latiusculum  (Desv.)  Maxon].  Western  bracken  ranges  from  Que- 
bec to  Alaska  and  south  to  California,  South  Dakota,  and  northern 
Michigan.  The  tips  of  its  rootstocks  (rhizomes)  are  dark  haired, 
the  coverings  (indusia)  of  the  narrow  spore  clusters  (sori)  are 
hairy  (villous)  or  fringed  (ciliate),  the  leaves  are  more  or  less 
silky  hairy  or  woolly,  especially  beneath,  and  the  pinnules  are 
borne  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  axes  of  their  leaf  branches 
(pinnae).  Eastern  bracken  occurs  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  eastern 
North  America,  south  into  Mexico,  and  as  far  west  as  Oklahoma 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  tips  of  its  rootstocks  are  whitish 
hairy,  the  fruiting  indusia  are  hairless  (glabrous)  and  not  fringed, 
the  leaves  are  hairless  or  only  slightly  pubescent,  and  the 
pinnules  are  broader  and  borne  obliquely. 

Bracken  grows  in  a  variety  of  sites,  in  both  moist  and  fairly 
dry  and  poor  soils,  but  attains  its  most  luxurious  growth  in  thicket- 
like  stands  in  rich  bottom  lands.  In  the  western  range  country  it 
probably  reaches  its  greatest  abundance  and  size  in  Douglas-fir 
areas  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Washington  and  Oregon 
and  is  also  very  abundant  in  parts  of  Idaho  and  California;  it 
ranges  from  near  sea  level  up  to  about  10,000  feet  in  Colorado. 
In  the  Southwest  it  usually  occurs  in  mountain  parks  and  along 
streams  where  the  soil  is  moist  and  fertile.  It  is  common  along 
roadsides,  field  borders,  in  openings  and  parks  of  the  ponderosa 
pine  and  aspen  types,  and  is  a  frequent  invader  of  burns  and  cut- 
over  areas.  An  aggressive  plant,  because  of  its  extensive  system 
of  rootstocks  and  voluminous  spore  production,  it  often  becomes 
a  pestiferous  weed  and  difficult  to  eradicate  in  cultivated  fields 
and  pastures.  When  dry  in  the  fall  it  may  become  a  serious  fire 
hazard.  Bracken  is  often  called  brake;  however,  brake  is  better 
applied  to  the  large,  chiefly  tropical  Old  World  genus  Pteris. 

As  a  rule  bracken  is  regarded  as  of  distinctly  minor  importance 
on  the  range,  if  not  actually  unpalatable  to  livestock;  however, 
under  some  circumstances  it  may  be  rather  extensively  grazed  by 
all  kinds  of  stock,  especially  after  frost  in  the  fall.  Burtt-Davy 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  H 


F-293553 

Figure  1. — Western  bracken  {Pteridium  aquilivwn  var.  pubesceiis  Underw. ). 
From  left  to  right:  Rootstock  and  stipe  base;  fi'ond;  two  (enlarged)  sori,  or 
clusters  of  spore  sacs  {sporangia),  the  left  one  discharging  fruiting  spores; 
underside  of  pinnule  tip  (enlarged). 


12   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

(3If,  p.  63)  speaks  of  the  rootstocks  being  eaten  by  swine.  How- 
ever, it  has  a  rather  long  history  as  a  possible  stock-poisoning 
plant.  Miiller  (l-lfS)  states  that  bracken  ["Adlerfarn  (kraut)"] 
straw,  or  hay  ("Hacksel")  may  cause  serious  illness  in  horses, 
including  nervousness,  loss  of  equilibrium,  dilated  pupils,  red- 
dening and  later  yellowing  of  the  conjunctiva  of  the  eyes,  slow- 
ing of  pulse,  and,  in  at  least  one  observed  case,  death.  Long  (123) 
adds:  "Continental  authorities  say  that  bracken  contains  the 
poisonous  Pterita7inic  acid,  which  is  identical  with  the  Filicic  acid 
of  the  Male  Fern  (Aspidium  filix-mas)."  Pott  (162,  2:274)  writes 
that,  in  Germany,  when  bracken  is  abundant  on  heathland  or  in 
dry  woods  and  eaten  by  cattle,  bloody  urine  results  or,  with 
horses,  nervous  symptoms  ("Gehirnleiden")  appear,  occasionally 
with  fatal  results. 

Lawrence  (116)  states  that  horses  may  acquire  a  taste  for 
bracken,  and  that  "fern  staggers"  due  to  this  plant  are  the  most 
common  poisonous-plant  effect  in  western  Oregon;  it  is  slow 
acting,  as  symptoms  do  not  appear  until  after  a  month  or  so  of 
feeding  on  hay  in  which  bracken  constitutes  about  a  third  or 
more.  This  happens  especially  in  dry  seasons  and  when  good  hay 
is  scarce  or  unobtainable.  The  disease  has  been  recognized  in 
western  Oregon  since  pioneer  days  and  horse  fatalities  are  reported 
almost  every  year  from  it,  especially  in  the  foothills  of  the  Cascade 
and  Coast  Mountains.  Glover  and  Robbins  (82)  list  bracken  as 
"the  only  fern  in  Colorado  that  is  suspected  of  being  poisonous." 

Deerfern,  or  elkfern  [Striithiopteris  spicant  (L.)  Weis,  syn. 
Blechnum  spicant  (L.)  J.  E.  Smith],  one  of  numerous  ferns  locally 
known  as  "swordfern"  and  the  only  species  of  its  large  genus 
native  to  this  country,  occurs  in  Europe  and  Asia  and,  in  our 
Pacific  area,  in  moist  coastal  forests  from  Alaska  to  Santa  Cruz, 
Calif.  The  numerous  tufted  pinnate  fronds  grow  in  a  circle,  the 
taller  fertile  fronds  in  the  center  and  from  6  inches  to  about  5  feet 
tall.  It  is  reported  to  be  the  principal  winter  deer  feed  on  the 
Chugach  National  Forest,  southern  Alaska,  being  abundant  in 
sheltered  places  where  only  heavy  snows  cover  it  lightly.  On  the 
Olympic  Peninsula  of  Washington  it  is  said  to  be  good  to  very 
good  fall,  winter,  and  spring  elk  and  deer  forage  and  also  eaten 
slightly  by  cattle. 

Other  fern  genera  common  in  the  western  range  country  are 
spleenwort  (Asplenium  spp.),  lipfern  (Cheilanthes  spp.),  bladder- 
fern  (Cystopteris  spp.),  cloakfern  (TSotholaena  spp.),  cliflfbrake 
(Pellaea  spp.),  Woodsia  spp.,  and  chainfern  (Woodwardia  spp.). 
Some  of  these  have  value  as  ground  cover  and  as  ornamentals 
but  their  forage  value  is  chiefly  nil. 

LILY  FAMILY  (LILIAGEAE) 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  and  best  known  families  of  flowering 
plants;  a  conservative  estimate  gives  about  39  genera  and  311 
species  native  to  the  11  Far  Western  States,  the  family  being  espe- 
cially well  developed  in  California.    The  onion  genus   (Allium), 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  lo 

with  about  83  species  in  the  western  range  area,  is  the  largest 
group.  Great  diversity  exists  among  botanists  as  to  where  the 
limits  of  this  family  should  be  drawn ;  some  separate  one  or  more 
of  the  seven  subfamilies  mentioned  in  this  discussion  into  distinct 
families ;  others  remove  some  of  the  genera  mentioned  into  differ- 
ent families.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  treatment  presented 
here  approximates  majority  botanical  opinion. 

With  the  exception  of  the  dracaena  subfamily  (Dracaenoideae), 
many  of  which  are  arborescent  or  shrubby,  the  genus  Smilax 
(mostly  more  or  less  woody  vines),  and  certain  species  of  Aspar- 
agus, members  of  the  lily  family  are  usually  perennial  herbs, 
arising  from  a  bulb,  corm,  rootstock,  or  crown  with  fibrous  roots. 
The  leaves  are  typically  rather  narrow  but  may  be  broad  (as  in 
false-hellebore,  Veratrum),  basal  or  alternating  in  two  ranks  on 
the  stem,  or  sometimes  whorled  (as  in  some  lilies  and  fritillaries). 

The  flowers  are  often  showy  and  more  or  less  colored,  and  are 
usually  6  parted,  the  3  lower  segments  ("sepals")  and  the  upper 
3  ("petals")  mostly  similar  in  appearance  (except  in  Calocliortus 
and  TriUium):  ordinarily  there  are  6  stamens  (1  opposite  each 
perianth  segment)  but  3  of  these  are  sometimes  sterile  and  re- 
duced to  staminodia,  and  in  the  beadruby  genus  (Maianthemum) 
there  are  4  perianth  parts  and  4  stamens ;  pistils  are  3  or  some- 
times 1  and  the  ovary  superior ;  the  fruit  is  usually  a  3-lobed 
podlike  capsule  (which  may  sometimes  be  fleshy  and  more  or  less 
edible  in  Yucca),  splitting  when  ripe  typically  down  the  middle 
of  the  back  (dorsal  suture)  of  each  carpel  (loculicidal  dehiscence) 
or  dividing  at  the  partitions  (septicidal  dehiscence) ,  or  else  the 
fruit  may  be  a  berry  (as  in  asparagus  and  Solomonseal). 

The  lily  family  is  usually  separated  from  the  amaryllis  (Amaryl- 
lidaceae)  and  iris  (Iridaceae)  families,  both  of  which  have  inferior 
ovaries.  The  amaryllis  family  has  the  flowers  mostly  in  umbels 
(which  is  one  of  the  reasons  some  botanists  place  the  onion  genus 
and  the  Brodiaea  group  in  that  family),  the  tube  of  the  flower 
more  or  less  fused  with  the  ovary,  6  stamens  and  inturned  (in- 
trorse)  anthers.  The  iris  family  has  flowers  in  a  spathe,  2-ranked 
clasping  (equitant)  leaves,  3  stamens  and  outward-turned  (ex- 
trorse)  anthers. 

With  perhaps  a  few  minor  exceptions  the  lily  family,  aside  from 
the  onion  genus  (Allium)  and  the  poisonous  plants  in  the  bunch- 
flower  subfamily  (Melanthioideae) — deathcamas,  false-hellebore, 
tofieldia,  etc.,  is  not  of  major  importance  from  the  range  livestock- 
feed  standpoint.  The  family  is  notable  for  the  great  number  of 
species  with  large  and  showy,  often  bright-colored  and  fragrant 
flowers  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  groups  in  ornamental 
horticulture.  Several  species  of  Allium,  the  garden  onion,  chives, 
garlic,  leek  and  shallot,  are  cultivated  as  vegetables,  in  addition 
to  garden  asparagus  (Asparagus  officinalis  L.). 

The  lily  family  also  contains  a  number  of  official  drug  plants, 
including  Mediterranean  aloes  (Aloe  barbadensis  Mill.,  syn.  "A. 
vera"  of  authors,  not  L.),  Cape  aloes  (A.  ferox  Mill.)?  Perry  aloes 
(A.  perryi  Baker),  autumn-crocus  (Colchicutn  autumnale  L.)  from 


14   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

which  colchicine  is  derived,  lily-of-the-valley  (Convallaria  majalis 
L.),  saffron  crocus  (Crocus  sativus  L.),  drug  sabadilla  (Schoeno- 
caulon  officinale  A.  Gray),  Mexican  sarsaparilla  (Smilax  aristo- 
lochiaefolia  Mill.,  syn,  S.  medica  Schlecht.  &  Cham.),  Jamaica 
sarsaparilla  (S.  regelii  Killip  &  Morton),  India  drugsquill  (Vrginea 
indica  Kunth),  shore  drugsquill  [Urginea  maritima  (L.)  Baker, 
syns.  Scilla  maritima  L.,  U.  scilla  Steinheil],  and  false-hellebore 
(Veratrum  spp.).  Notes  on  range  species  of  yucca  are  provided 
elsewhere  (54,204). 

Authorities  differ  as  to  the  organizational  breakdown  of  this 
large  family  into  subfamilies  and  tribes.  For  convenience  the 
Dalla  Torre  and  Harms  (48)  sequence  is  here  employed,  because 
it  is  made  familiar  by  use  in  most  of  our  botanical  manuals  and 
larger  herbaria. 

ONION  SUBFAMILY  (ALLIOIDEAE) 

Onion  Tribe  (Allieae) 
Onion  (Allium) 

This,  the  largest  genus  of  the  lily  family  with  about  500  species, 
is  widely  distributed  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere ;  it  is  represented 
in  the  western  range  area  by  about  88  species  and  is  especially  well 
represented  in  California,  Oregon,  and  the  Intermountain  region. 
Onions  reproduce  freely  both  from  seed  and  underground  parts 
and  often  grow  in  dense  patches,  especially  in  moist  meadows  but 
they  occupy  sites  varying  from  rather  dry  plains  and  foothills 
to  thickets  and  woodlands.  They  are  perennial,  mostly  bulbous, 
stemless  (save  for  the  flower  stalk)  herbs  with  the  characteristic 
onionlike  (alliaceous)  smell  and  taste.  It  has  been  shown  that 
this  is  due  to  an  essential  oil  "specific  for  each  species"  (160). 

The  deep  rose  to  white  flowers  have  a  6-parted  perianth  (or, 
as  some  botanists  prefer,  3  sepals  and  3  petals),  free  or  slightly 
united  at  the  base,  borne  in  a  simple  bracted  umbel  at  the  apex  of  an 
erect,  leafless  scape.  The  leaves  are  mostly  linear,  flat  or  round  in 
cross  section  (terete).  In  collecting  onions  care  should  be  taken 
to  get  good  representation  of  the  parts  underground  since  these 
have  great  diagnostic  value,  especially  in  regard  to  the  presence  or 
absence  of  rootstocks,  and  the  character  of  the  bulbcoats,  whether 
fibrous,  membranous,  netlike  (reticulated),  etc. 

Most  onions  are  eaten  greedily  by  cattle  and  sheep  but  only 
occasionally  by  horses.  Unless  grazed  judiciously  they  are  objec- 
tionable for  dairy  cows  because  the  volatile  oils  flavor  the  milk. 
The  different  species  vary  considerably  in  size  and  amount  of 
herbage.  Some  small  species  spring  up  quickly  after  the  snow  melts 
but  wither  and  blow  away  with  the  coming  of  dry  summer  weather. 
A  few  species,  especially  the  introduced  ones,  remain  green  during 
the  season.  Wild  onions  furnish  green  succulent  herbage  early 
in  the  spring,  when  their  palatability  is  especially  high.  Some 
stockmen  make  the  mistake  of  turning  their  livestock  onto  the 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS  15 

range  in  order  to  utilize  onions  before  the  main  crop  of  forage 
plants  has  developed  sufficiently  to  justify  grazing.  Such  a  practice 
is  injurous  to  the  more  permanent  vegetation  on  which  proper 
seasonal  use  of  the  range  should  be  based.  Elk  in  Yellowstone 
Park  and  elsewhere  feed  extensively  on  onions,  especially  in  spring. 
Bears  dig  up  and  eat  the  bulbs;  Indians  also  utilized  these  bulbs 
as  a  source  of  food. 

A  number  of  onion  species  are  cultivated  as  vegetables :  garden 
onion  (Allium  cepa  L.),  shallot  (A.  ascalonicum  L.),  chives  (A. 
schoenoprasiim  L.)  a  variety  [sibiricum  (L.)  Hartm.]  of  which 
is  native  on  western  ranges,  garlic  (A.  sativum  L.),  and  leek  (A. 
porrum  L.).  Garlic  is  also  an  official  drug  plant  (216)  and  the 
United  States  Dispensatory  (1J^7)  indicates  that  the  native 
Canada  garlic  (A.  canadense  L.),  which  gets  as  far  west  as  South 
Dakota,  Colorado,  and  Texas  and  is  a  familiar  weed  in  lawns  and 
other  cultivated  grounds,  is  an  acceptable  substitute  for  it.  Pipal 
(157)  reports  that  the  death  in  June  1917  of  five  cows  and  a 
heifer  near  Lafayette,  Ind.,  appeared  to  be  the  result  of  eating 
Canada  garlic  but  it  seems  difficult  to  accept  this  plant  as  definitely 
toxic.  Another  well-knovni  pestiferous  weed  is  field  (or  meadow) 
garlic  (A.  vineale  L.)  with  tubular  leaves.  A  number  of  species 
of  AlHnm  are  cultivated  as  ornamentals,  e.g.,  the  yellow-flowered 
lily  leek,  or  moly  (A.  moly  L.),  the  blue-flowered  blueglobe  onion 
(A.  caeruleum  Pall.),  and  the  white-flowered  Naples  onion  (A. 
neapolitanum  Cyr.). 

Tapertip  onion  (Allium,  acuminatum.  Hook.),  occurring  on  sage- 
brush plains,  rich  meadows,  rocky  foothills,  and  mountain  slopes, 
from  British  Columbia  to  Montana,  Colorado,  Arizona,  and  Cali- 
fornia, has  dark-colored  outer  bulbcoats  with  4-  to  6-angled  and 
raised  reticulations,  or  network.  The  flattened  leaves  are  shorter 
than  the  4-  to  12-inch-high  flowerstalk.  The  flowers  are  dark 
rose  to  reddish  purple,  the  segments  tapertipped  and  longer  than 
the  stamens,  the  three  upper  and  inner  ones  ("petals")  minutely 
toothed  on  the  margins.  The  plant  is  highly  palatable  to  sheep 
and  cattle,  but  it  usually  grows  scatteringly  and  its  foliage  is 
rather  scant. 

Shortstyle  onion  (Allium  brevistylum  S.  Wats.)  ranges  in  foot- 
hills or  along  mountain  streams  up  to  subalpine  elevations  (in 
Colorado  between  6,500  and  9,000  feet),  from  Montana  to  Colo- 
rado and  Utah.  The  bulbs  are  elongated  and  oblique,  covered  with 
a  thin  papery  membrane  and  surmount  a  woody  rootstock.  The 
flowers  are  rose  colored  or  purplish  pink,  the  stalk  (scape)  6  to  24 
inches  high.  While  not  of  great  abundance  it  is  fairly  common 
and  highly  palatable  to  cattle  and  sheep,  at  least  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  growth. 

Rather  closely  related  to  shortstyle  onion  is  Pacific  onion  (Al- 
lium validum  S.  Wats.)  (fig.  2),  known  also  as  alpine  meadow, 
large,  swamp,  and  tall  onion,  one  of  the  largest  and  coarsest  of 
the  range  species  of  this  genus,  which  occurs  from  Washington  to 
Idaho,  Nevada,  and  California,  between  about  5,000  and  11,000 
feet,  typically  in  subalpine  or  alpine  meadows  or  swamps.    Its 


16       AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK   161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  2. — Pacific  onion  {Allium  validum  S.  Wats.). 


white-coated,  not  netted,  narrow  bulbs  are  produced  on  a  long 
rootstock;  the  stout  2-edged  flattened  scape,  or  flower  stalk,  is 
1  to  3  feet  high,  the  leaves  long  flat  and  linear,  and  the  flowers 
rose  color  to  almost  white.  It  is  good  sheep  and  cattle  forage  where 
it  occurs  but  is  usually  limited  in  abundance. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  widely  distributed  species  of  Amer- 
ican onions  is  nodcling  onion  (Allium  cerniium  Roth,  syns.  A. 
neomexicanum  Rydb.,  A.  recurvatnm  Rydb.)  (fig.  3),  which  ranges 
from  British  Columbia  south  to  Lane  County,  Oreg.,  New  Mexico, 
Missouri,  Kentucky,  and  the  mountains  of  northern  Alabama  and 
Georgia,  and  north  to  New  York.  In  the  range  area  it  is  found  in 
meadows,  sagebrush  plains,  foothills  and  rocky  slopes  but  is  most 
frequent  in  moist  to  dry  sandy  loams  up  to  about  7,000  feet  eleva- 
tion, mainly  in  the  ponderosa  pine  belt.  Rarely  it  grows  in  almost 
pure  stands  but  is  usually  associated  with  such  plants  as  yarrow, 
dandelion,  deathcamas,  and  bluegrass  and  fescue  species,  or  grows 
among  willows  or  on  the  border  of  timber  or  aspen-fir  stands. 


NOTES  OX  WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS 


17 


F-287103 

Figure    3.— Nodding    onion     (Alliii) 
cernuum  Roth) . 


18       AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Nodding  onion  grows  from  a  long-necked,  narrow,  membranous- 
coated  bulb,  the  bulbs  usually  clustered  on  a  short  rootstock.  The 
usually  pink  (occasionally  white  or  nearly  so)  nodding  inflores- 
cence, with  protruding  stamens,  is  very  characteristic,  overtopping 
the  flattened  linear,  ridged  leaves,  on  a  stalk  4  to  24  inches  high. 
Flowers  appear  from  May  to  the  latter  part  of  July,  the  plants 
maturing  and  drying  up  during  July  and  the  first  half  of  August. 
Nodding  onion  is  highly  palatable  to  both  cattle  and  sheep  during 
its  green  stage,  and  only  its  relatively  small  size,  evanescence  and 
usual  lack  of  abundance  prevent  it  from  being  classed  among  the 
most  important,  early-season  forage  plants. 

Idaho  onion  (Allium  fibrillum  M.  E.  Jones,  syn.  A.  collinum 
Dougl.,  not  Gussone)   (fig.  4)  is  a  small  onion,  perennial  from  a 


F-236008 

Figure  4. — Idaho  onion  (Alliuvi  fibrillum  M.  E.  Jones,  syn.  A.  collinum  Dougl., 
not  Gussome). 


small,  almost  spherical  not  at  all  rhizomatous  bulb  l^  to  %  inches 
thick;  the  outer  bulbcoats  are  net  veined  (reticulated),  without 
fibers  until  old,  the  vein  nets  (reticulations)  irregular,  narrow, 
contorted  with  wavy  or  curving  sides,  often  reddish,  in  age  be- 
coming fiber-fringed  (fimbrillate — whence  the  specific  name  fibril- 
lum.) The  2  or  3  leaves  are  rather  narrowly  linear,  3  to  6  inches 
long.  The  white  flowers  are  in  a  small,  terminal,  flat-topped  umbel, 
subtended  by  2  ovate  bracts  less  than  14  inch  long,  the  6  petallike 
segments  abruptly  sharp  tipped,  14  inch  or  a  little  more  long,  the 
3  outer  segments  ovate,  the  3  inner  ones  lance  shaped  and  un- 
toothed ;  the  stamens  are  very  short,  only  about  half  as  long  as  the 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  19 

tloral  segments.  The  fruiting  capsules  are  slightly  ridged  but 
hardly  crested. 

Idaho  onion,  often  locally  abundant,  occurs  on  scablands  and 
high  ridges  from  extreme  western  Montana,  through  Idaho  to 
eastern  Washington  and  eastern  Oregon.  Sampson  (176),  as  a 
result  of  his  studies  in  the  upland  ranges  of  the  Blue  Mountains  of 
northeastern  Oregon,  reports  that,  of  the  local  wild  onions,  this 
"is  the  most  important  *  *  *  (it)  is  the  earliest  of  the  species, 
doubtless  from  the  fact  that  it  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  scab- 
lands  *  *  *  It  is  valuable  only  as  an  early  range  plant,  and  by 
August  1,  like  most  other  onions  in  similar  situations,  completes 
its  growing  period,  dries  up,  and  disappears." 

Geyer  onion  (Allium  geyeri  S.  Wats.)  ranges  from  British 
Columbia  to  eastern  Oregon,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Wy- 
oming, and  the  Black  Hills  of  western  South  Dakota.  It  is  named 
for  its  discoverer,  the  German  botanist  and  explorer  Charles  A. 
Geyer  (78),  who  traveled  and  collected  extensively  in  the  West 
between  1835  and  1845.  The  (usually  3)  rather  slender  leaves, 
usually  shorter  than  the  6-  to  24-inch-high,  slightly  2-edged  flower 
stalk  (scape),  are  produced  from  a  fibrous-coated,  ovoid,  or  elon- 
gated bulb.  The  flowers  are  pink  or  pinkish,  the  ovary  minutely 
crested  with  six  small  knoblike  excrescences. 

This  onion  is  usually  found  in  moist  to  wet  meadows  or  along 
rocky  streambanks  in  the  ponderosa  pine  type.  Supervisor  C.  A. 
Ballinger  of  the  old  Sioux  (now  Custer)  National  Forest  (w.  S. 
Dak. — e.  Mont.)  reported  that  this  "is  found  in  greatest  abundance 
on  gumbo  or  clay  soils ;  is  one  of  the  first  plants  to  make  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  spring,  and  is  eaten  by  cattle  and  sheep.  Where 
there  is  little  else  growing,  cattle  will  eat  it  until  their  flesh  is  so 
permeated  with  the  odor  of  onions  that  it  is  unfit  to  eat.  Butter 
and  milk  from  them  is  likewise  tainted." 

Some  of  the  other  common  native  western  range  onions  that 
locally  provide  considerable  early  feed  for  sheep  and  cattle  are  as 
follows :  In  the  Pacific  area,  twinleaf  onion  (Allium  anceps  Kell.) ; 
in  California  or  extending  into  southern  Oregon,  dusky  onion  (A. 
cam-panulatum  S.  Wats.),  sickleleaf  onion  (A.  falcifolium,  Hook. 
&  Arn.)  and  serrate  onion — referring  to  the  sawtoothlike  mark- 
ings of  the  bulbcoats — (A.  serratum  S.  Wats.);  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  Brandegee  onion  (A.  brandegei  S.  Wats.)  and  textile 
onion  (A.  textile  Nels.  &  Macbride,  not  J.  &  C.  Presl)  ;  in  the 
Intermountain  region,  twincrest  onion  (A.  bisceptrum  S.  Wats., 
syn.  A.  palmeri  S.  Wats.) ;  in  the  Inland  Empire  area,  extending 
south  into  northern  Utah,  Tolmie  onion  (A.  tolmiei  Baker) ;  in 
the  Southwest,  Kunth  onion  (A.  kunthii  Don,  syn.  A.  scaposum 
Benth.).  Also,  ranging  in  a  vast  area  in  northern  Europe  and 
Asia  and,  in  North  America,  from  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  and 
Quebec  to  Alaska  and  south  to  Oregon,  Colorado,  the  Great  Lakes 
region,  New  York,  and  Maine,  is  a  native  variety  of  chives,  Sibe- 
rian chives  (A.  schoenoprasum  var.  sibiricum  (L.)  Hartm.,  syn. 
A.  sibiricum  L.),  with  tubular  leaves  and  clustered,  whitish-coated 
bulbs. 


20       AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  following  genera  and  species,  rather  closely  related  to 
onions,  are  perhaps  worthy  of  mention  as  constituents  of  the  range 
flora,  although  their  forage  value  is  definitely  minor  not  so  much 
because  of  unpalatability  as  on  account  of  limited  distribution  and 
abundance  and  the  relatively  small  amount  of  herbage  produced. 

Purple  funnel-lily  ( Androstephium  breviflorum  S.  Wats.),  rang- 
ing from  southwestern  Colorado  to  southern  Utah  and  southern 
California,  has  leaves  longer  than  the  naked  flower  stalk  (scape) 
and  light  violet-purple  flowers.  Another  species,  blue  funnel-lily 
lA.  caeruleutn  (Scheele)  Greene,  syn.  A.  violaceum  Torr.],  in  orna- 
mental cultivation,  occurs  from  Kansas  to  Texas.  These  two 
United  States  species  appear  to  comprise  the  genus  Androstephi- 
um, a  genus  with  bulblike  corms,  grasslike  basal  leaves,  and  spring- 
produced  flowers  in  an  umbel  (as  in  onions  and  members  of  the 
parsnip  family).  The  6  flower  segments  (perianth,  or  corolla) 
are  united  to  about  the  middle  or  above  into  a  funnellike  tube,  the 
lobes  flaring  at  the  top ;  the  6  stamen  stalks  (-filaments)  are  more 
or  less  united  into  a  tubular  corofia  [to  which  Androstephium, 
Latinized  from  the  Greek  prefix  di'8po  (man)  +  o-t€>os  (crown,  or 
garland)  refers],  with  2-toothed  lobes  between  each  of  the 
6-inturned  (introrse)  anthers. 

Bloomeria  (Bloomeria  spp.)  is  a  summer-flowering  California 
genus  of  two  species,  Cleveland  bloomeria  (B.  clevelandii  S.  Wats.) 
of  the  San  Diego  area,  and  darkstripe  bloomeria  [B.  crocea  (Torr.) 
Coville],  a  coastal  species  (also  in  cultivation)  getting  into  Lower 
California.  They  have  bulblike  corms,  "wheel-shaped"  yellow 
G-parted  flowers  on  jointed  stalks  (pedicels),  the  petallike  segments 
2  to  3  nerved,  and  stamen  stalks  (filaments)  with  cup-shaped 
winged  appendages  at  base.  Bloomeria  commemorates  Mr.  H.  G. 
Bloomer,  an  early  botanical  curator  of  the  California  Academy  of 
Sciences.  The  species  are  often  called  "goldenstars,"  a  name  too 
conflicting  with  goldenstar  (Chrysogonum  spp.)  and  goldstar 
(Crocidium  spp.). 

Mexican-star  (Milla  biflora  Cav.),  the  only  known  representative 
of  its  genus,  occurs  in  the  oak  belt  and  ponderosa  pine  type  of 
southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  and  south  into  southern  Mexico, 
v/here  it  was  discovered  and  described  by  the  Spanish  botanist 
Antonio  Jose  Cavanilles  (1745-1804).  Cavanilles  named  it  after 
the  superintendent  of  the  Royal  Garden  of  Madrid,  Don  Julian 
Milla.  It  has  grasslike  basal  leaves  from  a  bulb  with  fascicled  tu- 
berous roots  below  it;  salverform,  waxy-white  (with  green  mid- 
vein)  fragrant  flowers  about  2  inches  across,  solitary  or  in  2-  or 
3-flowered  umbels ;  stigma  large  and  prominent ;  stamens  not 
united,  and  the  flower  stalk  (pedicel  or  scape,  as  the  case  may  be) 
somewhat  swollen  at  the  top.   It  is  cultivated  as  an  ornamental. 

Muilla  (Muilla  spp.),  which  is  just  Allium  spelled  backwards, 
is  an  onionlike  California  genus  of  3  or  4  species.  They  have 
father  few,  narrow,  rounded  leaves  about  the  same  length  as  the 
flower  stalk,  arising  from  a  bulblike  corm.  The  individual  flowers, 
borne  on  long  unjointed  stalks  (pedicels)  in  an  umbel,  are  6  parted, 
the  segments  slightly  united  at  base,  without  a  tube,  mostly  2 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORB^  21 

nerved,  the  6  stamens  brightly  colored,  with  their  stalks (filame7its) 
thickened,  dilated  or  winged  at  the  base,  and  with  anthers  at- 
tached by  their  middles  (versatile).  Probably  the  best  known 
species  is  sea  muilla  [>/.  maritima  (Torr.)  S.  Wats.],  a  coastal  and 
inland  valley  species,  chiefly  on  alkaline  or  serpentine  soils,  with 
no  glands  on  the  perianth  segments  and  bright  purple  anthers. 

Texas  falsejjarlic  (Nothoscordum  texanum  M.  E.  Jones),  with 
slightly  fragrant,  yellowish-white  flowers  tinged  with  purple,  is 
distributed  from  western  Texas  to  southern  Arizona  and  south 
into  northern  Mexico,  inhabiting  dry  gravelly  plains  and  lower 
slopes.  A  related  species,  yellow  falsegarlic  [!S.  bivalve  (L.)  Britt.] 
occurs  in  the  Southeast,  getting  as  far  west  as  Nebraska  and 
Texas,  Nothoscordum,  whose  name  derives  from  Greek  ro(9os  (bas- 
tard) +  a-i'oSpsov  (garlic),  in  an  onionlike  genus  of  bulbous  herbs 
and  dift'ering  chiefly  in  the  total  lack  of  alliaceous  odor  and  with 
the  presence  of  more  than  two  ovules  in  each  ovary  cell.  Its  generic 
limits  are  in  controversy.  At  least  two  of  the  species  are  in  orna- 
mental cultivation. 

Brodiaea  (Brodiaea) 

Brodiaea,  under  a  conservative  nomenclature,  is  a  west-Ameri- 
can genus  of  about  31  species.  Nomenclaturally  it  has  been  a  bone 
of  contention.  First,  under  the  International  Code  of  Botanical  No- 
menclature, Brodiaea  (1810)  is  conserved  as  against  the  older 
Hookera  (1808).  Both  genera  are  based  on  the  same  type  species 
\_B.  coronaria  (Salisb.)  Jeps.,  syns,  B.  grandiflora  J.  E.  Smith, 
Hookera  coronaria  Salisb.].  Sir  James  Edward  Smith,  M.  D. 
(1759-1828)  read  his  paper  on  Brodiaea  before  the  Linnean  So- 
ciety of  London  on  April  19,  1808,  but  it  was  not  actually  published 
until  2  years  later,  naming  it  in  honor  of  his  wealthy  patron  and 
fellow  member  of  the  Linnean  Society,  James  Brodie  of  Scotland. 

Another  British  botanist,  Richard  Anthony  Salisbury  (1761- 
1829),  had  previously  published  Hookera,  named  for  William 
Hooker  of  the  famous  line  of  British  botanists  of  that  surname. 
Smith  knew  that  Salisbury  had  preceded  him  in  naming  this  genus 
and  a  bitter  controversy  arose  between  them,  as  Britten  has  pointed 
out  in  his  paper  Hookera  v.  Brodiaea  (32).  In  addition  to  the 
confusion  caused  by  these  almost  simultaneously  published  two 
names  for  the  same  genus  is  the  fact  that  this  original  generic 
concept  has  been  broken  down  since  by  many  others  into  a  dozen 
or  more  other  genera,  among  which  are  Calliprora,  Dichelostemma, 
Dipterostetyion,  Hesperoscordnm,  Macroscapa  (syn.  Stropholi- 
rion),  and  Ty^iteleia.  Those  interested  in  the  taxonomy  and  nomen- 
clature of  this  group  will  find,  among  others,  the  papers  by  Bur- 
banck  (3.3)  and  Hoover  (98,  99),  with  their  bibliographies,  to  be 
of  interest. 

Brodiaea  (including  the  segregates  mentioned)  occurs  also  in 
South  America.  California,  with  about  22  species,  is  the  center  of 
distribution.  One  species  each  is  confined  to  Arizona  and  Wash- 
ington ;  also  to  Montana-Idaho-Utah,  New  Mexico-southern  Utah, 


22       AGRICUI^JURE  HANDBOOK  Kil,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  Washington-Oreg-on.  The  remainder  of  our  native  species  in- 
habit the  Inland  Empire,  Intermountain,  and  Pacific  areas. 

The  herbage  of  brodiaeas  is  palatable  to  all  classes  of  livestock, 
at  least  until  the  flower  heads  mature.  When  the  ground  is  wet 
enough,  grazing  animals  will  often  pull  up  the  bulbs  and  eat  them. 
As  a  rule  the  plants  are  so  scattered,  rather  evanescent,  and  the 
leafage  so  limited  in  quantity  that  they  are  not  a  material  factor  in 
range  grazing  capacity ;  there  are,  however,  limited  localities  where 
brodiaeas  are  fairly  valuable  from  the  forage  viewpoint. 

Bluedicks  brocliaea  [Brodiaea  capitata  Benth.,  syns.  Dichelo- 
sfemma  capitaf/um  (Benth.)  Wood,  Dipterostemon  capitatus 
(Benth.)  Rydb.,  Hookera  carMata  (Benth.)  Kuntze]  has  an  un- 
usually wide  range  for  this  genus — from  southern  Oregon  to 
Utah,  Arizona,  and  southern  California.  Its  showy  flower  stalks 
are  8  to  20  inches  high  with  the  umbel  of  bluish,  violet  or  purple 
flowers  congested  and  somewhat  headlike  (capitate).  It  is  lo- 
cally fairly  common  on  rocky  hillsides,  flowering  in  April-June  or, 
in  the  south,  as  early  as  February-March. 

Harvest  brocliaea  [Brodiaea  coronaria  (Salisb.)  Jeps.,  syns.  B. 
grandiflora  J.  E.  Smith,  Hookera  coronaria  Salisb.],  the  botanical 
type  of  both  Brocliaea  and  Hookera,  a  violet-purple-flowered  spe- 
cies ranging  on  plains,  foothills  and  mountains  between  200  and 
8,000  feet,  from  British  Columbia  to  California  (west  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada),  is  reported  to  invade  burns  on  certain  forest 
areas. 

Douglas  brocliaea  [Brodiaea  douglasii  S.  Wats.,  syns.  Hookera 
douglasii  (S.  Wats.)  Piper,  Triteleia  grandiflora  (J.  E.  Smith) 
Lindl.,  B.  grandiflora  (Lindl.)  Macbride,  not  B.  grandiflora  J.  E. 
Smith],  with  dark  blue  flowers,  is  found  in  sagebrush,  bunch- 
grass,  and  ponderosa  pine  types,  between  elevations  of  about  2,100 
and  8,300  feet  from  British  Columbia  to  western  Montana,  west- 
ern Wyoming,  Utah,  and  Washington  and  Oregon  (east  of  the 
Cascades)  ;  it  has  not  been  observed  in  either  Colorado  or  Cali- 
fornia. This  species  has  been  reported  as  a  "good"  forage  plant 
on  one  of  the  rang-es  of  the  Colville  National  Forest  in  northeastern 
Washington. 

The  bulbs  of  brodiaeas  formed,  when  abundant,  a  rather  im- 
portant source  of  food  to  the  Indians  and  early  settlers,  and  some 
of  them,  in  fact,  have  a  very  agreeable  flavor.  Chesnut  (37)  has 
noted  five  species  as  being  valued  by  the  Indians  of  Mendocino 
County,  Calif. ;  of  Brodiaea  capitata  he  says  ''the  bulbs  are  eaten 
raw,  but  are  sweeter  when  cooked  in  ashes."  Of  B.  coronaria,  he 
adds :  "The  brown-coated  corm  *  *  *  is  greatly  relished  by  sheep  as 
well  as  by  the  Indians.  It  is  sweet  after  roasting  for  a  day.  The 
Yuki  name  is  ant-pot." 

Chesnut  has  somewhat  similar  notes  also  for  two  California 
species,  grassnut  brocliaea  [Brodiaen  laxa  (Benth.)  S.  Wats.,  syns. 
Hookera  laxa  (Benth.)  O.  Kuntze,  Triteleia  laxa  Benth.]  and 
longslalk  brodiaea  [B.  peduncularis  (Lindl.)  S.  Wats.,  syns.  Hook- 
era peduncular  is  (Lindl.)  0.  Kuntze,  Triteleia  peduncularis  lAndX.'] ; 
also  for  hyacinth  brocliaea  \B.  hyacinthina   (Lindl.)   Baker,  syns. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  23 

Hesperoscordion  hijaciuthiuum  Lindl.,  H.  lacfeum  Lindl..  Hookera 
Jnjaciuthiua  (Lindl.)  O.  Kuntze.  Tritcleia  hyacinthiua  (Lindl.) 
Greene],  the  botanical  type  of  the  orenus  Hesperoscordum,  with 
flowers  white  with  greenish  or  purplish  midveins,  and  which 
rang-es  from  British  Columbia  and  Vancouver  Island  to  Washing- 
ton, Idaho,  Nevada,  and  California.  More  than  20  species  of 
brodiaea  are  in  the  horticultural  trade  as  ornamentals  (8,  10). 

Very  close  botanically  to  the  genus  Brodiaea  and  perhaps  to  be 
merged  with  it  is  the  spectacular  floral-firecracker  (Brevoortia 
ida-maia  Wood),  occurring  in  coastal  and  near-coastal  forests  of 
northwestern  California  and  southwestern  Oregon.  It  has  umbels 
c^.f  showy  scarlet  tubular  drooping  flowers  with  an  inner  corona  of 
three  dilated  sterile  stamens  (stamiuodia).  The  genus,  named 
after  J.  Carson  Brevoort,  an  early  New  York  naturalist  and 
regent  of  the  State  University,  is  a  prized  ornamental. 

ASPARAGUS  SUBFAMILY  ( ASPARAGOIDEAE) 

The  tj-pe  of  this  subfamily  is  the  large  Old  World  genus  Aspara- 
gus, to  which  the  garden  a^sparagus  (Asparagus  officinalis  L.)*  the 
florists'  ''smilax"  (a  gross  misnomer),  Smilax  asparagus  [A.  as- 
paragoides  (L.)  Wight]  and  numerous  ornamentals  belong.  The 
subfamily  is  represented  in  the  western  range  country  by  the 
following  tribe. 

SOLOMONSEAL  TrIBE    ( POLYGON  ATAE  ) 

This  tribe  is  represented  in  the  Far  West  by  7  genera  of  peren- 
nial herbs:  beadlily  (Clintouia).  with  2  species;  fairybells  (Dis- 
porum).  with  6  species;  kruhsea  (Kruhsea),  a  monotypic  arctic 
genus  that  reaches  northern  Washington;  beadmby   (Maianthe- 

mum.  syn.  VnifoUum) — Maiauthemum  (1780)  is  conserved,  under 
the  International  Code,  against  Unifolium  (1757) — with  2  species; 
Solomonseal  (Polygonatum).  with  one  endemic  species  in  New 
Mexico  and  another  eastern  species  which  barely  reaches  the  range 
area  from  North  Dakota  to  Oklahoma  and  Texas ;  Solomonplume, 
or  false-Solomonseal  (Smilacina.  syn.  Vaguera),  with  5  species; 
and  twistedstalk  (Streptopus).  with  3  species. 

In  general  these  plants  have  alternate  (basal  in  Clintonia  or 
sometimes  solitary  in  Maiauthemum) ,  rather  broad  (often  ovate) 
leaves,  and  the  fruit  is  a  berry.  All  have  a  flower  of  six  distinct 
petallike  parts,  except  Maiauthemum  which  has  four.  Cliutouia, 
Kruhsea,  Maiauthemum,  and  Smilaciua  have  the  petallike  floral 
segments  more  or  less  spreading;  in  Disporum,  Polygouatum,  and 
Streptopus  the  flowers  of  pendulous,  and  more  or  less  bell-like. 
In  the  two  genera  last  named  the  flowers  are  axilliary,  in  the 
others  terminal  and  often  paired  or  few  except  in  Smilaciua  where 
they  are  massed  in  panicles  or  racemes.  Many  of  these  plants  are 
ornamental;  their  palatability  to  domestic  livestock  is  limited, 
varying  from  nil  to  poor  or  at  most  fair.  Deer  are  fond  of  the 
berries  of  Solomonplume  (Smilaciua  spp.). 


24   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

A  common  representative  of  this  group  is  fat  Solomonplume 
[Smilacina  amplexicauUs  Nutt.,  syn.  Vagne7'a  amplexicaulis 
(Nutt.)  Greene]  (fig.  5),  which  ranges  in  moist  wooded  hillsides 
up  to  the  ponderosa  pine,  fir,  and  aspen  types  in  the  mountains, 
from  British  Columbia  and  Alberta  to  Montana,  New  Mexico,  and 
California.  It  reaches  a  height  of  from  1  to  3Vo  feet,  has  a  stout 
elongated  rootstock,  alternate  ovate  clasping  leaves  2  to  6  inches 
long,  and  (often  dense)  terminal  panicle  of  white  flowers,  and 
red  berries  with  purplish  dots.  Smilacina  (1807)  is  conserved, 
under  the  International  Code,  against  Vagnera  (1763). 


F-478350 

Figure  5. — Fat  Solomonplume 
(Smilacina  amplexicaidis 
Nutt.).  Upper-  left,  flower; 
lower-  right,  fruiting  tip; 
bottom,  lower  stem  and  rhi- 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  25 

ASPHODEL  SUBFAMILY  (ASPHODELOIDEAE) 

This  subfamily  is  represented  on  the  western  range  by  three 
herbaceous  tribes. 

Asphodel  Tribe  (Asphodeleae) 

This  tribe  includes  5  genera  and  9  species  of  range  plants  of  no 
forage    value.     Torrey    aiithericum    ( Anther icum    torreyi    Baker) 

chiefly  occurs  in  ponderosa  pine  forests  from  western  Texas  to 
Arizona  and  south  into  Mexico.  It  belongs  to  a  large,  mostly  Old 
World  genus,  which  includes  the  cultivated  ornamental  St.  Ber- 
nard-lily (A.  liliago  L.). 

Amole  soapplant  [Chlorogalittn  porneridianum  (DC.)  Kunth, 
syn.  LaotJioe  pomeridiana  (DC.)  Raf.]  is  a  coarse  herb  from  a 
deep-seated  large  bulb  covered  with  blackish  horsehairlike  fibers ; 
is  has  a  cluster  of  wavy  basal  leaves  up  to  18  inches  long  and  1  inch 
wide,  a  flower  stalk  up  to  4  feet  high  with  1  or  2  greatly  reduced 
leaves,  and  a  panicle  of  white,  purple-striped  flowers  opening  in 
the  late  afternoon  in  midsummer  when  the  leaves  are  drying.  It 
grows  in  valleys  and  on  rocky  hillsides  from  northern  California 
to  southwestern  Oregon.  The  bulbs  contain  saponin  and  have 
been  used  as  a  soap  substitute.  It  was  an  important  plant  to  the 
native  Indians — see,  for  example,  Chesnut  (38) :  they  roasted  and 
ate  the  leaves,  used  the  bulbs  for  soap  and  glue,  the  bulbcoat  hairs 
for  stuflfing  mattresses,  etc.  Chlorogahim  is  a  genus  of  5  species, 
almost  confined  to  California,  1  species  getting  north  into  Oregon 
and  another  into  Lower  California. 

Eremoerinuin  (Eremocrinum  albomarginatuni  M.  E.  Jones)  is 
found  on  dry  "desert"  areas  and  in  the  sagebrush  type  of  southern 
Utah  and  northern  Arizona.  The  only  species  known  of  its  (rnono- 
iypic)  genus,  it  is  an  evanescent  plant,  6  to  12  inches  high,  from  a 
narrow  somewhat  bulbous  base  bearing  below  a  cluster  of  fibrous 
roots.  The  six  perianth  segments  ("petals"),  not  united  or  only 
slightly  so,  are  white  with  green  veins ;  the  flowers  are  borne  in  a 
narrow  erect  panicle.  The  plant  is  rather  attractive  in  bloom  but 
of  no  known  economic  value.  The  name  Eremocrinum  is  Greek 
for  "desert  lily"  and  Jones  (108)  wished  to  call  it  by  that  name; 
however,  "desertlily"  is  a  well-established  name  for  the  genus 
Hesperocallis. 

Odontostomum  (Odontostomum  hartivegii  Torr.)  is  another 
monotypic  Californian  species.  It  is  a  rather  rare  plant  of  dry 
hillsides,  from  a  deep-seated  round  corm  about  1  inch  in  diameter. 
The  whitf  or  yellowish,  somewhat  tubular  flowers  are  in  a  terminal 
panicle  The  ^ame  Odoyitostomum,  meaning  "toothed  mouth," 
refers  ■'  '  somewhat  toothlike  sterile  stamens  (staminodia) 
in  the  ..    the  flowers,  alternating  with  the  6  fertile  stamens. 

Rush:  ^  f  SchoenoUrion)  is  a  genus  of  5  species,  3  eastern,  and 
2  in  California  and  southern  Oregon.  They  are  somewhat  rushlike 
plants  growing  in  moist  meadows,  near  streams  and  the  like,  with 
grasslike  leaves  and  mostly  narrow  racemes  or  panicles  of  rather 
small,  6-parted  white  or  greenish  flowers.    Schoenolirion  Durand 


26   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

(1855) — the  name  is  Greek  for  "rush  lily" — is  conserved  under 
the  International  Code  against  Amblostima  Raf.  (1836)  and 
Oxytria  Raf.  (1836). 

Daylily  Tribe  (Hemerogallideae) 

Two  range  genera  belong  to  this  tribe,  the  type  of  which  is  the 
cultivated  daylily  genus  (Hemerocallis) . 

Desertlily  (Hesperocallis  undulata  A.  Gray)  grows  in  the  creo- 
sotebush  and  other  desert  types,  mostly  below  2,000-foot  eleva- 
tions, from  southern  Arizona  to  the  Imperial  Valley,  southern 
California,  probably  extending  southward  into  Sonora.  It  is  a 
rather  showy,  bulbous  perennial,  with  mostly  basal  leaves,  the 
bracted,  funnel-shaped,  whitish  and  green-striped,  soon-withering 
flowers  up  to  nearly  2  inches  long,  borne  on  jointed  pedicels  in  a 
terminal  raceme  up  to  about  a  foot  long.  It  is  occasionally  culti- 
vated as  an  ornamental.  It  is  of  little  or  no  forage  value.  The  bulbs 
are  eaten  by  local  Indians. 

Common  starlily,  also  known  as  "mountainlily,"  "sagelily,"  and 
"sandlily"  ( Leiicocrinum  montaniim  Nutt.)  is  a  low  stemless  plant 
from  a  short,  deep-seated  rootstock,  with  linear  leaves  and  sheathed 
at  the  base  with  membranous  or  skinlike  bracts.  The  3  to  8  white, 
fragrant,  "starlike"  flowers  have  a  slender  elongated  basal  tube 
and  are  borne  in  a  sessile  umbel.  It  occurs,  mostly  in  sandy  soils 
and  often  in  sagebrush  areas,  from  the  Black  Hills  of  western 
South  Dakota  to  Oregon,  California,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  New 
Mexico.  It  appears  not  to  have  been  found  in  Washington,  Idaho, 
and  Arizona.  The  roots  are  eaten  by  various  Indians  and  are 
reputed  to  have  an  agreeable  flavor.  Blankenship  (27)  reports 
that  the  Crow  Indians  call  the  plant  "ecopa."  Ordinarily  the  forage 
value  is  negligible,  but  occasionally  the  plant  has  been  observed 
to  be  limitedly  cropped  by  sheep  and  cattle. 

Herb-Paris  Tribe  (Parideae) 

This  tribe  is  named  for  the  Old  World  herb-Paris  (Paris).  It 
includes  two  range  genera. 

The  skunklily  (Scoliopus)  genus  sometimes  called  "fetid  adders- 
tongue,"  consists  of  2  species:  1  Calif ornian  and  1  Oregonian. 
They  inhabit  moist  coastal  redwood  and  fir  forests  and  are  small 
stemless  plants  with  broad  spotted  leaves  somewhat  reminiscent 
of  those  of  fawnlily,  or  "adderstongue"  (Eryfhroniiim).  The  small, 
homely,  ill-smelling  flowers,  with  parts  distinctly  in  3's,  are  borne 
on  twisting  stalks  (pedicels) — referred  to  in  the  scientific  name. 
Of  no  forage  value. 

Trillium  (Trillium),  often  called  "wakerobin,"  is  an  ornamental 
North  American  and  Old  World  genus,  with  about  12  species  in 
the  Eastern  States  and  about  seven  species  in  the  western  range 
States.  The  genus  does  not  occur  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
The  most  widely  distributed  of  the  range  species  is  Pacific  trillium 
(T.  ovatum  Pursli),  which  ranges  in  moist  spots  in  spruce,  aspen, 
and  ponderosa  pine  types  from  British  Columbia  to  Montana, 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  27 

Colorado,  Utah,  and  California.  Like  all  trilliums  this  species  has 
a  rootstock,  an  unbranched  stem  bearing  a  whorl  of  3  leaves  at  the 
summit  and  one  showy  3-petaled,  3-sepaled  flower.  These  plants 
are  seldom  touched  by  domestic  livestock  and  presumably  are 
more  or  less  poisonous.  All  parts  of  the  plant,  especially  the  root- 
stocks  and  berries,  have  emetic  properties.  The  rootstock  of  the 
eastern  purple  trillium  (T.  erectnm  L.)  is  an  official  drug.  A 
number  of  the  species  are  in  ornamental  cultivation. 

DRACAENA  SUBFAMILY  ( DRACAENOIDEAE) 

This  subfamily  is  represented  in  the  western  range  country  by 
two  tribes  and  three  genera.  The  type  of  the  subfamily  is  the 
dracaena  (Dracaena)  genus,  in  turn  typified  by  the  dragontree,  or 
dragon  dracaena  (Dracaena  draco  L.)  of  the  Canary  Islands,  of 
which  the  most  famous  representative  was  the  giant  dragontree  of 
Tenerife  Island.  This  giant  tree  was  destroyed  by  a  hurricane  in 
1868  and  was  reputed  at  that  time  to  be  the  oldest  living  thing  on 
earth,  its  age  having  been  estimated  to  date  from  the  Great  Pyra- 
mid of  Cheops  in  Egypt,  over  4,700  years  before.  Dragonsblood, 
a  gum  exuded  by  the  dragontree,  was  formerly  much  used  in  the 
arts,  as  a  red  pigment  in  photoengraving,  for  varnish,  etc. 

NoLiNA  Tribe  (Nolineae) 

The  w^estern  range  representatives  of  this  tribe  belong  to  two 
genera,  both  chiefly  Mexican,  and  confined,  so  far  as  the  United 
States  is  concerned,  to  the  area  extending  from  western  Texas  to 
southern  California.  Sotol  (Dasylirion)  is  represented  in  the 
United  States  by  about  5  species,  and  nolina  (Nolina),  often 
called  "beargrass,"  which  includes  sacahuista  (N.  microcarpa  S. 
Wats.)?  by  about  5  species.  Range  notes  for  these  two  more  or  less 
woody  plant  genera  are  given  in  Important  Western  Browse 
Plants  (54,  V-  15).  Bell  and  Castetter  (16)  mention  the  uses  of 
these  plants  by  Southwestern  Indians. 

Yucca  Tribe  (Yucceae) 

So  far  as  the  range  area  is  concerned  this  largely  woody  tribe 
consists  of  the  genus  yucca  (Yucca) ^  range  notes  for  which  are 
given  in  Important  Western  Browse  Plants  (5Jf)  and  the  Range 
Plant  Handbook  (204). 

LILY  SUBFAMILY  (LILIOIDEAE) 

Squill  Tribe  (Sgilleae) 

This  is  the  tribe  to  which  the  cultivated  ornamental  squills,  also 
called  "bluebell,"  "scilla,"  and  "star-hyacinth"  (Scilla)  and  the 
closely  related  sea-onion  (Vrginea)  genus  belong.  Shore  drug- 
squill  [Urginea  maritima  (L.)  Baker,  syn.  Scilla  maritima  L.], 
of  the  Old  World,  is  an  official  drug  plant  but  its  chief  economic 
significance  is  the  use  of  the  bulbs  as  a  standard  rat  poison,  under 


28   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  trade  name  "red  squill."    The  bulbs  of  India  drugsquill  [U. 
indica  (Roxb.)  Kunth,  syn.  Scilla  indica  Roxb.]  are  a  substitute. 

Camas  (Camassia,  syn.  Qtiamasia) 

This  genus  consists  of  about  six  species,  with  one  exception 
confined  to  the  Far  West.  All  are  in  ornamental  cultivation.  North- 
western Indians  called  them  "quamash,"  from  which  English 
camas  is  derived.  They  have  various  other  vernacular  names,  in- 
cluding swamp-sego,  wild-hyacinth,  or  blue  camas — the  last  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  poisonous,  greenish  or  whitish  flow- 
ered deathcamas  (Zigadenus).  .Camases  are  perennial  herbs  from 
coated  bulbs,  with  long,  narrow  basal  leaves  and  naked  or  bracted 
stalks  (scapes)  up  to  about  2  feet  high.  The  blue,  purplish  or 
occasionally  white  flowers,  in  terminal  racemes,  appear  chiefly 
from  May  to  July,  each  flower  composed  of  6  separate  segments 
in  2  series,  with  6  included  versatile  anthers. 

A  very  characteristic  member  of  this  genus  is  common  camas 
[Camassia  quamash  (Pursh)  S.  Wats.,  syns.  C.  esculenta  Lindl.  not 
(Ker)  Rob.,  Qitamasia  quamash  (Pursh)  Coville],  ranging  in 
high  mountain  meadows  w^here  often  abundant,  from  British 
Columbia  to  Montana,  Utah,  and  California.  The  dense  stands  of 
waving  flowers  often  give  the  distant  appearance  of  a  body  of 
water.  The  palatability  of  this  and  most  other  camases  varies 
from  fair  to  fairly  good,  occasionally  good  for  sheep.  On  the  high 
summer  ranges  camases  are  little  grazed  because  they  bloom,  dry 
up,  and  disappear  before  the  sheep  are  moved  to  those  ranges. 
Camases  ordinarily  grow  on  sites  too  wet  for  sheep.  If  given  a 
choice,  horses  and  cattle  do  not  ordinarily  graze  camas,  but  they 
frequently  eat  these  plants  along  with  other  meadow  forage  and 
the  plants  are  not  objectionable  when  cured  in  mixed  native  hav 
(20  J,). 

The  bulbs  of  camases,  with  one  exception,  are  edible  and  were 
an  important  source  of  food  among  western  Indians,  as  Chesnut, 
Coville,  Havard,  Leiberg,  and  others  (38,  U7 ,  91,  118)  have  pointed 
out.  Geyer  (78),  in  speaking  of  "Oregon  Territory"  Indians  in 
1843-4,  says :  "The  digging  of  the  Gamass  bulb  is  a  feast  for  old 
and  young  *  *  *  the  young  women  vie  with  each  other  in  collecting 
the  greatest  possible  quantity  and  best  quality  of  Gamass,  because 
their  fame  for  future  good  wives  will  depend  much  on  the  activity 
and  industry  they  show  here;  the  young  men  will  not  overlook 
these  merits,  and  many  a  marriage  is  closed  after  the  Gamass  are 
brought  home."  However,  the  bulb  of  a  tall,  pale-blue-flowered, 
relatively  broad-leaved  Blue  Mountains,  Oregon,  species  Cusick 
camas  (Camassia  cusickii  S.  Wats.),  has  a  nauseating  taste.  This 
species  is  named  for  its  discoverer,  W.  C.  Cusick,  an  early  ama- 
teur botanist  and  collector  of  Union,  Oreg. 

Tulip  Tribe  (Tulipeae) 

To  this  group  belong  the  familiar  Old  World  tulip  (Tidipa)  genus 
and  five  range  genera. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  29 

Mariposa  (Calochorttis) 

This  attractive  Rroup  of  coated-bulbous  herbs  is  confined  to 
southern  British  Columbia,  the  Western  United  States  and  Mexico. 
California  (especially)  and  Oregon  are  the  center  of  distribution. 
Ownbey  (H9)  lists  57  species,  of  which  about  45  occur  in  the 
Western  States.  They  occur  from  the  dry  open  prairies  and  foot- 
hills to  the  higher  moist  and  shady  alpine  meadows  and  woods. 
They  are  rather  fragile  perennials  with  a  few  basal  and  somewhat 
grasslike  leaves,  leafy  stems,  and  showy  terminal  flowers.  The 
three  inner  and  upper  floral  parts  (petals)  are  much  differentiated 
from  the  three  smaller  greenish  sepals  beneath ;  there  are  6 
stamens  in  2  series  with  the  anther  bases  prolonged  into  a  tubular 
sheath,  a  sessile,  persistant  3-lobed  stigma,  and  fruiting  capsules 
splitting  open  along  the  partitions  (septa),  with  numerous  flat- 
tened seeds. 

These  characters  have  been  considered  by  some  botanists  suffi- 
cient to  place  the  genus  in  a  separate  family,  Calochortaceae.  The 
genus  is  the  western  analogue  of  the  Old  World  tulips  and,  for 
that  reason,  the  vernacular  name  mariposa-tulip  is  perhaps  pref- 
erable to  mariposa-lily.  Many  California  authorities  object  to  the 
use  of  the  name  mariposa  (Spanish  for  butterfly)  except  for  mem- 
bers of  the  section  Mariposa.  These  authorities  chiefly  use  fairy- 
lantern,  globetulip,  pussy-ears,  and  star-tulip,  respectively,  for  the 
subsection  PidcheUi,  section  Cyclobothra,  subsection  Elegantes, 
and  subsections  Nitidi  and  Nudi.  The  small,  fuzzy-petioled  species 
[such  as  C.  coendeus  (Kell.)  S.  Wats,  and  C.  elegans  Pursh]  are 
often  called  cats-ears,  pussy-ears,  and  bats-ears. 

The  generic  name  Calochortus  is  derived  from  Greek  Ka\a^ 
(beautiful)  +  Xo-^tos^  (forage — especially  grass),  referring  to  the 
beautiful  flowers  which  run  almost  the  entire  gamut  of  the  spec- 
trum in  color — white,  cream,  yellow,  brown,  orange,  red,  blue, 
purple,  violet  or  a  mixture,  the  petals  aften  dark  spotted  or  dotted 
near  the  base.  Many  of  the  species  are  in  ornamental  cultivation. 
Credit  is  due  David  Douglas  (1799-1834),  the  eminent  Scotch 
botanical  explorer,  as  pioneer  popularizer  of  the  mariposas,  espe- 
cially for  ornamental  gardening.  He  discovered  several  species 
and  introduced  them  into  England. 

The  five  species  annotated  below  are  among  the  commonest  and 
best  known  of  the  range  mariposas,  and  have  in  general  the  minor 
forage  values  indicated  above  for  the  genus  as  a  whole. 

The  forage  value  of  Calochortus  is  limited,  chiefly  due  to  scanty 
evanescent  herbage  and  the  usual  scattered  and  sparse  stand.  The 
plants  dry  up  shortly  after  blossoming.  However,  early  in  the 
season,  when  fresh  and  succulent,  the  palatability  of  the  herbage 
is  good  for  sheep  and  fair  for  cattle.  Horses,  however,  as  a  rule, 
nibble  these  plants  only  through  accident  or  necessity.  The  bulbs 
or  mariposas  are  eaten  by  pocket  gophers  and  other  rodents,  which 
gather  and  store  them  for  winter  use ;  they  were  eaten  also  by 
Indians.  Probably  the  bulbs  of  all  the  species  are  edible  and  those 
of  some  of  them  [e.g.,  skyblue  mariposa,  C.  coeruleus   (Kell.)   S. 


30   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-478351 

Figure  6. — Mariposa  {Calochortus) .  A,  Northwestern  mariposa  (  C.  elegans 
Pursh),  with  individual  flower  and  petal;  B,  Gunnison  mariposa  (C.  Gunni- 
sonii  S.  Wats.),  showing  flowering  and  fruiting  tip,  individual  flowers,  and 
petal  with  broad  fringed  basal  gland;  C,  skyblue  mariposa,  or  "pussy-ears" 
[C.  coeruleus  (Kell.)  S.  Wats.,  syn.  C.  maweanus  Leichtlin  in  part],  with 
individual  hairy  petal. 


Wats.,  syn.  C.  maweanus  Leichtlin  in  part,  a  Californian  "pussy- 
ears"]  (fig.  6)  have  a  rich,  nutty  flavor  when  roasted. 

Ownbey  (1J^9)  recognizes  3  sections  and  12  subsections  of  Calo- 
chortus. His  sections  are  Eucalochortus,  with  more  or  less  rounded, 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS  31 

3-wing-ed  fruits  and  a  subumbellate  inflorescence,  the  flowers  often 
and  the  fruits  usually  nodding;  Mariposa,  with  narrower  and 
mostly  S-angfled  fruits,  and  membranous-coated  bulbs;  Cydo- 
bothra,  with  fiber-netted  bulbcoats  and  including  among  others, 
the  "fairy-lanterns"  having  nodding,  rather  globular  flowers. 

1.  Northwestern  niariposa  (Calochortus  elegans  Pursli)  (fig.  6), 
is  of  historical  interest  as  the  botanical  type  of  the  genus,  the 
earliest  known  and  described  species,  originally  collected  by  Capt. 
Meriwether  Lewis  of  the  Lewis  &  Clark  Expedition  at  the  head- 
waters of  the  Kooskoosky  River,  Idaho.  It  (including  its  varieties) 
is  found  from  the  Bitterroot  Mountains  of  western  Montana, 
through  (especially  central)  Idaho  and  southeastern  British  Co- 
lumbia into  Washington  and  Oregon  (east  of  the  Cascades)  as  far 
as  Siskiyou  County,  northern  California.  It  is  one  of  the  two 
(perhaps  three)  species  of  the  genus  found  in  British  Columbia. 
Tt  occurs  in  ponderosa  pine  woods,  pinegrass  and  other  grass  weed 
meadows,  slopes  and  ridges,  between  elevations  of  2,000  and  7,000 
feet — up  to  subalpine  meadows. 

It  is  a  small  plant,  one  of  the  so-called  cats-ears,  or  pussy-ears, 
about  2  to  8  inches  tall,  with  a  solitary  basal  leaf  longer  than  the 
stem;  1  to  3  (occasionally  4)  erect  or  slightly  nodding  flowers  with 
the  3  petals  white  or  greenish  white  above  and  purplish  or  bluish 
at  base,  more  or  less  densely  beset  and  also  fringe-margined  with 
soft  hairs.  The  glandular  pit  at  the  base  of  each  petal  is  covered  on 
its  upper  portion  by  a  narrow  fringed  scale  occupying  about  a 
third  of  the  width  of  the  basal  "claw."  The  fruiting  capsules  are 
elliptical,  rounded  at  each  end,  and  more  or  less  nodding. 

2.  Gunnison  niariposa  (Calochortus  gtuinisonii  S.  Wats.)^  (fig-  6) 
ranges  from  the  Black  Hills  of  western  South  Dakota  to  central 
Montana  and  south  to  Colorado,  eastern  Utah,  northern  Arizona, 
and  eastern  New  Mexico.  It  has  several  slender  often  inrolled 
leaves  and  a  stem  about  8  to  20  inches  high,  from  a  bulb  tvithout 
bulblets.  The  flowers  are  large  and  showy,  the  white,  cream-color, 
lilac  or  purplish  (in  one  variety,  yellow)  petals  sometimes  11/2 
inches  long,  with  purple-doffec?  bases.  It  occurs  scatteringly  in 
sagebrush,  woodland,  and  ponderosa  pine  types — up  to  about  7,500 
feet  in  northern  Arizona. 

3.  Sagebrush  mariposa  (Calochortus  macrocarpiis  Dougl.) 
ranges  from  southern  British  Columbia  to  northern  California, 
northern  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  western  Montana.  The  stems  are 
rather  stout,  bluish  (glaucous)  up  to  20  inches  high  and  often  with 
bulblets  at  the  base ;  the  linear  leaves  become  inrolled  and  recurved 
at  the  tip.  The  flowers  are  large  and  showy,  the  3  petals  purple 
with  green  stripes,  up  to  2  inches  long,  the  sepals  elongated  and 
narrow  and  the  anthers  slender.  The  fruiting  capsules  are  linear, 
lance  shaped,  up  to  2  inches  long,  and  erect.   The  plant  grows  on 

•'The  plant  is  named  for  its  discoverer  and  first  collector,  Lt.  John  Williams 
Gunnison  (1812-53)  of  the  Army  Engineers  who  (with  Capt.  Howard  Stans- 
bury)  mapped  the  great  Salt  Lake  region  and  met  death  by  massaci'e  in  Utah. 
Gunnison  County,  Gunnison  River,  and  the  Gunnison  National  Forest  in  west- 
ern Colorado  also  commemorate  him. 


32   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

dry  plains  and  slopes,  usually  in  loose  volcanic  soils,  up  to  the 
ponderosa  pine  belt.    Sometimes  called  "green-banded  star-tulip." 

4.  Broadfruit  mariposa  (Calochortiis  nitidiis  Dougl.,  syn,  C. 
eury carpus  S.  Wats.)  is  found  in  both  dry  and  moist  meadows  and 
in  the  ponderosa  pine  type,  between  elevations  of  about  3,000  and 
6,500  feet,  associated  with  grasses,  bearberry,  erigeron,  larkspur, 
lupine,  spirea,  yarrow,  etc.  Its  range  is  southwestern  Montana  to 
southeastern  Washington,  eastern  Oregon,  and  Elko  County,  north- 
ern Nevada.  It  attains  a  height  of  1  or  2  feet,  with  1  or  2  basal 
leaves.  Inflorescence  mostly  in  umbels  of  2  to  4  large,  erect,  white 
or  cream-color  to  lavender  or  purple  flowers.  The  fruiting  capsules, 
up  to  1  inch  long,  are  broadly  winged. 

5.  Sego-Iily  (Calochortus  nuttallii  Torr.)^  is  the  most  widely 
distributed  species  of  Calochortus,  ranging,  with  its  varieties, 
from  the  western  Dakotas  as  far  as  Oregon,  California,  north- 
western New  Mexico,  Colorado,  and  western  Nebraska.  The  plant 
is  one  of  the  most  conspicious  and  beautiful  early-blooming  flowers 
of  the  semidesert  and  is  unusually  abundant  in  Utah,  where  it 
often  occurs  in  large,  fairly  dense  stands.  It  thrives  on  rather 
dry,  sandy  soils  on  the  open  sagebrus'h  foothills  and  valleys,  as  well 
as  in  open  ponderosa  pine  stands  at  moderate  elevations. 

The  bulblike  roots  of  sego-lily  were  deemed  a  great  delicacy  by 
the  western  Indians.  This  species  figured  prominently  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Mormon  Church  (179).  When  Brigham  Young  and 
his  little  band  of  followers  emigrated  into  Salt  Lake  Valley  in 
1847,  food  was  very  scarce.  It  is  reported  that  when  the  Mormon 
pioneers  in  Utah  faced  famine  conditions  in  1848-49  due  to  the 
inroads  of  crickets,  drought,  and  frost  on  their  grainfields,  the 
sego-lily  was  an  outstanding  means  of  tiding  them  over  (17). 
Before  the  flowers  appear,  the  leaves  of  sego-lily  are  often  con- 
fused with  those  of  deathcamas  (Zigadenus  spp.),  but  may  be 
readily  distinguished  by  the  rounded  troughlike  cross  section  of 
their  U-shaped  leaves,  as  opposed  to  the  sharply  V-shaped  leaf  of 
deathcamas  (20Jf). 

Fawnlily  (Erythronium) 

Erythronium  is  a  genus  of  low,  short-stemmed  herbs  from  deep- 
seated,  papery-covered  bulblike  corms,  with  mostly  2  basal  leaves, 
attractive  solitary  nodding  flowers  of  various  colors,  6  separate 
perianth  segments  ("sepals"  and  "petals"),  6  stamens  with  base- 
attached  anthers,  and  fruiting  capsules  splitting  when  ripe  in 
between  the  divisions  (septa).  Their  forage  value  is  largely 
negligible;  they  are  seldom  observed  to  be  grazed.    The  corms  of 


'Sego-lily — the  spelling  is  preferable  to  "sago-lily" — derives  its  name  from 
the  Indian  word  sego  for  the  plant.  Its  specific  name  commemorates  its  dis- 
coverer, Thomas  Nuttall  (1786-1854),  eminent  English-American  botanist, 
dendrologist,  ornithologist,  and  naturalist  [the  "Old  Curious"  of  Dana's  book 
"Two  Years  Before  the  Mast"  (66)],  who  accompanied  Nathaniel  Wyeth  on 
his  second  expedition  to  the  Pacific  in  1834.  Sego-lily  is  the  official  State 
flower  of  Utah. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS 


33 


some  species  were  eaten  by  Indians ;  a  number  of  the  species  are 
cultivated  as  ornamentals. 

There  are  about  23  species  of  f awnlily,  4  in  Europe  and  Asia ; 
3  in  the  Northeastern  States;  1  in  the  Southeastern  States,  and 
15  in  the  Western  States.  The  genus  is  absent  from  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  Applegate  (6),  in  his  monograph  of  the  western 
species  says :  "Over  one  third  of  the  known  species  are  concen- 
trated within  the  limits  of  the  old  cretaceous  'Siskiyou  Island'  of 
southwest  Oregon  and  northwest  California."  These  plants  are 
often  called  adderstongue,  dogtooth-violet,  glacierlily,  and  trout- 
lily.  The  generic  name  (derived  from  a  Greek  word  meaning 
red)  was  given  by  Linnaeus  because  of  the  red  flowers  of  the  type 
species  (the  only  one  known  to  him),  the  Eurasian  dogtooth  fawn- 
lily  (Erythronium  dens-canis  L.) 

Perhaps  the  commonest  of  the  range  species  is  the  yellow-flow- 
ered lambstongue  fawnlily  (Erythronium  grandiflorum  Pursh, 
syns.  E.  giganteum   Lindl.,   E.  parviflorum  S.  Wats.)    (fig.   7), 


M  """^^•^'^jK 


I      _'^(iM,0 

-Lambstungue   favvnlily    (Erythronium   gruiidifiorniii    Pursh,    syns 
E.  giganteum  Lindl.,  E.  parvifiorum  S.  Wats.). 


including  its  whitish-anthered,  unequal-filamented  var.  pallidum 
St.  John  (to  which  Applegate  refers  var.  parviflorum  S.  Wats., 
not  E.  parviflorum  S.  Wats.,  and  E.  parviflorum  Goodding  in  part) 
and  also  the  golden-anthered  ssp.  chrysandru.m  Applegate  (to 
which  Applegate  refers  Goodding's  type  of  his  E.  parviflorum) . 
E.  grandiflorum  ranges  from  Vancouver  Island  and  southern  Brit- 


34   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

ish  Columbia,  through  Washington  and  Oregon,  to  northern  Cali- 
fornia as  far  south  (along  the  west  coast)  as  Mendocino  County 
and  eastward  through  Nevada,  Utah,  and  western  Colorado  to 
western  Montana  and  southern  Alberta.  It  has  a  great  altitudinal 
range  from  near  sea  level  to  at  least  9,000  feet. 

Applegate  reports  that  the  region  of  greatest  abundance  of 
Erythroniiim  grandifiorum  is  probably  in  open  ponderosa  pine 
forests,  cutover  lands,  prairies  and  cultivated  fields  of  northern 
Idaho.  Chesnut  (38)  reports  that  the  Wailaki  Indians  of  California 
"use  the  crushed  corms  as  a  poultice  for  boils  and  have  a  peculiar 
superstition  that,  if  they  wash  themselves  with  a  decoction  of  it, 
they  can  stop  a  rattlesnake  from  having  dreams,  which,  they  say, 
make  them  more  irritable  and  dangerous";  the  bulbs  are  also 
limitedly  eaten.  Unlike  those  of  many  species,  the  leaves  of  E. 
grandifioritm  are  not  mottled;  in  the  typical  form  the  anthers 
are  red. 

Fritillary  (Fritillaria) 

This  is  a  large,  chiefly  Asiatic  genus  of  simple-stemmed  herbs 
perennial  from  bulbs  with  thick  fleshy  scales  and  which  often 
proliferate  at  the  base  into  numerous  rice-grainlike  bulblets — 
whence  one  of  the  vernacular  names,  "riceroot."  The  attractive 
flowers  are  nodding,  bell-  or  funnel-like,  solitary  or  in  racemes  or 
umbels,  with  6  similar,  frequently  speckled  or  mottled  segments 
("petals"),  a  more  or  less  3-lobed  stigma  and  6  stamens  attached 
at  their  base  below  the  ovary.  The  fruit  is  a  somewhat  papery 
oblong  or  ovoid  capsule,  splitting  between  the  three  partitions 
(septa)  to  discharge  the  flattened  seeds  which  are  arranged  in 
two  rows  in  each  cell.  The  genus,  so  far  as  North  America  is  con- 
cerned, is  confined  to  the  western  part,  from  Alaska  and  western 
Canada  southward,  where  about  17  species  occur.  Thirteen  of 
these  species  occur  in  California,  which  is  the  American  center  of 
distribution  for  the  genus.  Many  of  these  species  are  in  orna- 
mental cultivation. 

The  range  forage  significance  of  fritillaries  may  need  further 
study.  Their  palatability  is  often  reported  as  fair  or  occasionally 
good  but  their  value  ordinarily  is  negligible  or  small,  due  to  scat- 
tered stands  and  limited  amount  and  evanescence  of  herbage.  The 
genus  is  called  "poisonous"  by  Pammel  (152,  p.  377)  but,  to  the 
writer's  knowledge,  fritillaries  have  never  been  so  accused  on 
national  forest  or  other  western  ranges.  Moreover,  Anderson  (^), 
Gorman  (83),  Teit  (198),  and  other  authorities  report  the  use  by 
Indians  of  the  bulbs  and  ricelike  bulblets  of  fritillaries  as  food, 
both  raw  and  roasted.  Long  (123)  states  that,  although  no  definite 
case  of  poisoning  has  been  found  in  the  literature,  the  European 
Fritillaria  meleagris  L.  is  known  to  contain  the  bitter  alkaloid 
imperialine  (C35H60NO4),  which  is  a  heart  poison. 

The  books  indicate  that  the  generic  name  Fritillaria  is  derived 
from  Latin  fritillus  (dicebox) .  The  name  dates  back  at  least  as  far 
as  the  Belgian  botanist  Rembert  Dodoens,  or  "Dodonaeus"  (1517- 
85).  In  1583  Carolus  Clusius  (1526-1609),  a  nearly  contemporary 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  35 

Belg-ian  botanist,  wrote  that  the  name  originated  with  an  Orleans 
drug-gist  named  Noel  Capperon.  The  Englishman  John  Gerard 
wrote  in  his  Herbal  (1597)  :  "It  hath  been  called  Frittillaria,  of 
the  table  or  boord  upon  which  men  plaie  at  chesse."  Gerard  evi- 
dently referred  to  the  common  checkered  fritillary  of  Europe  (F. 
meleagris  L.),  which  has  checkered  spots  on  its  "petals."  Inci- 
dentally, the  Latin  word  for  dice  is  different,  aleae.  It  is  difficult 
for  the  writer  to  see  the  connection  between  a  checkerboard  pattern 
and  a  dicebox  unless,  to  be  sure,  medieval  diceboxes  were  so  pat- 
terned ;  he  wonders  if  there  could  possibly  be  a  connection  between 
fritiUa  (Latin  for  a  special  gruel  used  in  Roman  sacrifices)  and 
the  rice-grainlike  roots  of  this  genus.  The  two  species  briefly  an- 
notated below  are  perhaps  the  commonest,  most  widely  distributed 
and  best  known  range  species. 

Purplespot  fritillary  (Fritillaria  atropnrpurea  Nutt.)  ranges 
from  North  Dakota  to  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  California,  and 
Washington,  from  plains  to  foothills  and  into  the  ponderosa  pine 
and  aspen  types,  often  in  moist  rich  sites.  The  stems  are  slender, 
4  to  16  inches  high,  leafless  below,  the  stem  leaves  linear,  alternate 
or  the  uppermost  whorled  and  bear  one  to  several  flowers  dark 
purple,  mottled  with  yellowish  green,  or  yellowish  and  thickly 
m.ottled  with  maroon  or  purplish  spots. 

Yellow  fritillary  IFritillaria  pndica  (Pursli)  Spreiig.,  syn.  Ochro- 
codon  pudicKS  (Pursh)  Rydb.]  (fig.  8),  often  called  "yellowbell," 
is  a  plains  and  foothills  plant,  3  to  12  inches  high,  occurring  from 
British  Columbia  to  western  Montana,  Colorado,  New  Mexico, 
California,  and  Washington.  It  has  1  to  5  narrow  thickish  leaves, 
scattered  or  nearly  whorled,  and  a  usually  solitary  nodding  yellow 
flower. 

Lily  (Lilium) 

The  true  lilies,  a  spectacular  group  of  ornamental  plants,  are 
chiefly  represented  in  the  Near  East.  About  14  species  occur  in  the 
western  range  country.  They  are  perennial  herbs  from  scaly 
bulbs,  with  linear  to  narrowly  oval  leaves  alternate,  scattered  or 
M^horled ;  simple  stems ;  large  and  showy  flowers  (mostly  with 
shades  of  red,  orange  or  yellow,  sometimes  white,  often  purple 
spotted  or  dotted),  the  6  segments  (petals  and  sepals)  free;  3- 
lobed  stigmas;  6  stamens  with  anthers  attached  by  their  middles 
(versatile),  and  3-celled,  many-seeded  fruiting  capsules  opening 
between  the  partitions  (loculicidally  dehiscent). 

The  true  lilies  are  negligible  as  forage  plants  but  probably  all 
are  in  ornamental  cultivation.  Standardized  Plant  Names  (111) 
lists  82  species,  54  botanical  varieties,  and  161  horticultural  varie- 
ties and  clons  in  ornamental  cultivation  in  this  country ;  doubtless 
that  list  is  incomplete.  Stewart  (192)  reports  that  the  lily  genus  is 
"favorable  material  for  studies  in  chromosome  morphology,  both 
because  of  its  large  chromosomes  and  because — with  the  exception 
of  the  triploid  Lilium  tigrinum — all  the  species  reported  are 
diploid,  with  24  chromosomes."  Brief  notes  on  three  representa- 
tive range  lilies  follow. 


36       AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-243617 

Figure  8.— Yellow  fritillary  [Fritil- 
laria  jyudica  (Pursh)  Spreng.],  with 
fruiting  capsule. 


1.  Columbia  lily  (Lilium  columhianiim  Hanson),  also  known  as 
Columbia  tiger  lily  and  Oregon  lily,  is  found  in  moist  meadows, 
open  ponderosa  pine  woods  and  the  like,  from  Vancouver  Island 
and  southern  British  Columbia  south  to  western  Idaho  and  Hum- 
boldt and  Sierra  Counties,  Calif.,  chiefly  in  the  coastal  region.  It 
has  a  relatively  small  (II/2  to  2  inches  broad)  ovoid  bulb ;  a  slender 
stem  2  to  4  feet  high;  leaves  in  whorls  of  5  to  9  or  more  or  the 
uppermost  and  lowest  leaves  scattered;  and  usually  numerous 
nodding  flowers,  the  reflexed  segments  reddish  orange  and  purple 
spotted.  Ingram  Columbia  lily  (var.  ingramii  Hort.)  of  this  species 
is  named  after  Douglas  C.  Ingram,  a  Forest  Service  officer  of  the 
Pacific  Northwest  Region,  who  perished  in  the  Camas  Creek  fire 
on  the  old  Chelan  (now  Okanogan)  National  Forest,  Wash.,  in 
August  1929.  Mr.  Ingram,  on  the  side,  was  an  outstanding  field 
naturalist,  plant  collector,  and  lily  fancier. 

2.  Chaparral  lily  (Lilium  rubescens  S.  Wats.),  known  also  as 
chamise  lily,  lilac  lily,  and  redwood  lily,  chiefly  occurs  in  the  coast 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  37 

ranges  from  southwestern  Oregon  to  Marin  and  Lake  Counties, 
Calif.,  in  chamise,  chaparral,  and  redwood  types.  The  smooth 
stems  are  2  to  6i  -j  feet  high,  with  about  3  to  8  lilac,  almost  white, 
or  rose-purple,  erect  or  ascending,  very  fragrant  funnelform  flow- 
ers lV->  to  2  inches  long,  with  golden  anthers. 

3.  Washington  lily  (Lilium  ivashingtonianitni  Kell.)?  often  called 
Shasta  lily,  one  of  the  handsomest  of  American  lilies,  is  native  from 
the  Columbia  River,  Oregon,  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  of 
California,  mostly  in  rather  dry  chaparral  types.  The  smooth  or 
slightly  rough  stems  are  up  to  6  feet  tall,  with  leaves  in  whorls  of 
about  6  to  12,  11^  to  5  inches  long.  The  horizontal  fragrant  funnel- 
form  flowers,  arranged  in  a  raceme  of  up  to  about  20  flowers,  are 
white,  becoming  purplish  and  often  somewhat  dotted,  the  segments 
about  3  to  4  inches  long  and  narrowed  below  to  a  short  claw.  This 
lily  does  not  grow  naturally  in  the  State  of  Washington  and  com- 
memorates Martha  Washington  (212). 

Alplily  [Lloydia  serotina  (L.)  Sweet],  a  member  of  a  small  genus 
of  4  or  5  species — all  but  this  one  confined  to  the  Old  World,  is  a 
typical  arctic-alpine  plant  of  both  hemispheres,  occurring  in  the 
Swiss  Alps  and  other  moist,  rocky  alpine  situations  in  Europe,  in 
arctic  western  North  America  from  Alaska  south  to  Clatsop 
County  and  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Oregon,  Idaho,  and  western 
Montana  and  further  south,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  to  northern 
New  Mexico.  It  occurs  in  Nevada  but  apparently  not  in  California. 
It  has  been  described  (51)  as  "sl  quaint  little  plant,  2  to  6  inches 
tall,  the  'petals'  mainly  cream-white,  but  veined  with  green  and 
purple  and  often  stained  on  the  back  with  rose."  It  is  negligible 
as  forage,  but  is  occasionally  cultivated  as  a  rock-garden  plant 
(76).  The  genus  is  named  for  Edward  Lloyd,  a  Welsh  botanist. 

BUNCHFLOWER  SUBFAMILY 
(MELA  NTH  10  IDE  A  E) 

This  relatively  small  but  widely  distributed  and  important  sub- 
family, treated  by  some  botanists  as  a  distinct  family,  Melanthi- 
aceae,  is  represented  in  the  Western  States  by  7  genera  and  about 
25  species,  attaining  a  fuller  development  in  the  East.  Its  mem- 
bers are  leafy  stemmed  or  scapose  herbs,  perennial  from  often 
thick  and  elongated,  sometimes  tuberous  rootstocks  or  else  from 
bulbs  as  in  the  genus  Zigadeniis.  As  is  so  often  the  case  in  mono- 
cotyledons, the  leaves  of  the  western  range  Melanthioideae  are 
more  or  less  grasslike  except  in  Veratrum,  where  they  tend  more 
to  the  ovate  type. 

The  flowers  are  mostly  rather  small,  white,  greenish  or  yellow- 
ish but  sometimes  purplish;  they  have  a  superior  ovary  (or  in 
some  species  of  Zigaclenus,  partly  inferior)  3  distinct  styles,  6 
stamens,  a  6-parted  perianth,  and  are  arranged  in  terminal  ra- 
cemes, panicles  or  spikes.  The  fruiting  capsules  are  3  celled  and 
open  along  the  partitions  (sejMcidally  dehiscent)  except  in  Nar- 
thecium  where  the  fruits  open  midway  between  the  sutures  (loculi- 
cidally  dehiscent)  and  also  occasionally  in  Xerophylhim,  so  that  the 


38   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

fruits  sometimes  appear  to  be  6  valved.  The  Melanthioideae  may 
also  be  divided  [on  the  anthers]  into  two  groups :  One  with  2-celled 
anthers  of  an  oblong-ovate  type,  and  the  other  with  1-celled,  heart- 
or  kidney-shaped  anthers. 

Members  of  this  subfamily  are  characteristic,  as  a  rule,  of  moist 
to  wet  sites,  especially  in  the  mountains,  occurring  about  seeps 
and  cool  springs,  on  mossy  streambanks,  in  wet  meadows,  and  the 
like.  The  genera  Schoenocaulon  and  Xerophyllum,  however,  and 
certain  species  of  Zigadenus  inhabit  rather  dry  sites.  It  is  open 
to  question,  however,  whether  practically  the  whole  family  may 
not  be  regarded  as  essentially  hydrophytic;  the  mesophytic  and 
quasixerophytic  species,  which -seem  to  be  drought  enduring,  flour- 
ish also  where  there  is  abundance  of  moisture. 

All  plants  of  this  family  appear  to  have  active  chemical  proper- 
ties, and  they  are  of  much  concern  from  the  range  standpoint. 
All  the  species  have  either  a  history  as  stock-poisoning  plants  or 
else  are  gravely  under  suspicion. 

SwAMPPiNK  Tribe  (Helonieae) 

The  type  of  this  tribe  is  the  eastern  swamppink  (Helonias  hul- 
lata  L.),  a  rather  rare  swamp  plant,  of  a  monotypic  genus,  with  a 
spikelike  raceme  of  pink,  rose  or  purplish  flowers  4  to  12  inches 
long;  it  is  sometimes  cultivated.  The  only  western  genus  of  the 
tribe  is  the  following : 

Beargrass  (Xerophyllum) 

Tall  coarse  perennial  herbs,  often  called  turkeybeard,  from  a 
thick  woody  rootstock,  with  linear  leaves  in  a  thick  basal  tuft  and 
also,  reduced,  on  the  stems ;  dense  terminal  racemes  of  white  flow- 
ers, and  ovoid  fruiting  capsules  which  split  between  the  partitions 
(septa)  and  also  sometimes  between  them  (loculicidal  dehiscence). 
There  are  two  or  perhaps  three  species,  the  type  being  turkey- 
beard  beargrass  [Xerophyllum  asphodeloides  (L.)  Nutt.]  an  east- 
ern species  growing  chiefly  in  the  coastal  pine  barrens  and  a 
favorite  ornamental  bog  plant  of  European  gardens,  indicating  a 
natural  adaptability  to  moist  sites.  The  generic  name  Xerophyllum, 
from  Greek  xeron  (dry)  +  phidlon  (leaf),  refers  to  the  dry,  harsh 
rigid  leaves. 

Common  beargrass  [Xerophyllum  tenax  (Pursh)  Nutt.]^  (fig.  9) 
— sometimes  called  basketgrass,  elkgrass,  pinelily,  soapgrass,  and 
squawgrass — is  a  rigid,  tufted,  evergreen,  herbaceous  perennial 
plant,  growing  up  to  about  3i  -j  to  6  feet  high.  It  is  widely  distrib- 
uted in  the  mountains  from  British  Columbia  to  California,  Ne- 
vada, and  Montana.  It  is  typically  a  plant  of  the  higher  elevations, 
from  3,000  up  to  about  8,000  feet  above  sea  level ;  however,  it  ap- 
pears at  sea  level  on  the  Olympic  Peninsula  in  Washington,  prob- 
ably because  of  the  cooling  effect  of  the  ocean  breezes. 

*St.  John  {175)  mentions  the  unsuccessful  efforts  of  Suksdorf,  pioneer 
botanist  of  Washington  State,  to  get  the  settlers  to  adopt  Indian  names  for 
many  native  plants,  among  them  yei  for  Xerophyllwm  tenax. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS 

r>^  U  lis-  ^  ^^ 


39 


F-305162 

Figure  9.  —  Common  bear- 
grass  [XerophyUmn  tenax 
(Pursh)  Nutt.].  Upper 
right,  individual  flower;  be- 
low, fruiting  capsule,  show- 
ing persistent  styles,  the  6 
withering  persistent  peri- 
anth segments  ("petals") 
and  the  2  types  of  dehis- 
cence. 


40   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Common  beargrass  grows  in  all  types  of  soils  but  best  in  moun- 
tain meadows  and  on  well-drained  slopes  and  ridges.  It  blooms  in 
the  spring  on  the  lower  slopes  and  continues  until  snow  falls  around 
the  edges  of  snowbanks  at  high  altitudes.  The  plant  appears  not  to 
bloom  annually  but  possibly  only  once  every  5  to  7  years ;  presum- 
ably this  is  correlated  with  site  characteristics. 

The  forage  value  of  common  beargrass  is  slight  or  perhaps  neg- 
ligible or  problematic.  The  harsh,  forbidding  foliage,  if  better 
forage  is  unavailable,  is  hardly  tempting  to  grazing  livestock  but, 
when  snow  lies  on  the  ground  and  the  projecting  stems  are  some- 
times almost  the  only  visible  herbage,  these  are  occasionally 
cropped  by  hungry  cattle.  Sheep  crop  the  flowers  and  sometimes 
nibble  at  the  young  leaves.  Cattle  and  occasionally  sheep  pull  the 
leaves  and  chew  off  the  lower  white,  tender  part.  Deer  and  elk  eat 
the  plant  sparingly  the  year  around,  especially  the  more  tender 
leaves  (204-).  However,  in  view  of  the  prevailingly  poisonous 
character  of  this  subfamily,  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  scientific 
research  finds  toxic  properties  in  this  plant.  In  this  connection  it 
is  of  interest  that  sickness  and  losses  have  been  attributed  to  this 
source  by  cattlemen  on  and  adjacent  to  the  Shasta  National  Forest 
in  northern  California. 

Formerly,  the  Indians  bleached  and  dried  the  long,  fibrous  leaves 
of  common  beargrass  for  basketry  and  padding  and  roasted  the 
roots  for  food.  Frederick  Pursh  (1774-1820),  whose  early  North 
American  flora  (164)  is  a  classic  in  early  American  botany  and 
who  first  described  this  species,  called  it  tenax  (meaning  "te- 
nacious") because  "out  its  very  tenacious  leaves  they  (i.e.,  native 
Indians)  weave  their  watertight  baskets,  which  they  use  for  cook- 
ing their  victuals  in."  Common  beargrass  is  sometimes  cultivated 
as  an  ornamental. 

When  in  bloom,  common  beargrass  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
and  attractive  mountain  flowers  and  has  appropriately  been  called 
"The  Great  White  Monarch  of  the  Northwest."  The  flowers  exude 
a  heavy,  slightly  unpleasant  fragrance.  The  flower  clusters  occur 
at  the  top  of  the  stalk,  are  broad  at  the  base,  and  taper  to  a  blunt 
point.  Hundreds  of  creamy-white  flowers  are  closely  crowded  to- 
gether on  slender,  elongated  white  pedicels,  their  long  stamens 
giving  the  effect  of  being  solid  and  appearing  feathery.  The  wiry, 
grasslike,  rough-edged  leaves  are  from  1  to  3  feet  long,  green  on  the 
upper  side  but  a  pale  gray  underneath. 

A  rather  dubious  third  species,  Douglas  beargrass  (Xerophyllum 
douglasii  S.  Wats.),  with  smaller  flowers,  narrower  inflorescence, 
slightly  included  stamens,  and  somewhat  heart-shaped  capsules,  is 
occasionally  reported  from  western  Montana  to  Oregon.  Most 
botanists  regard  it  merely  as  a  form  or  variant  of  X.  tenax. 

ToFiELDiA  Tribe  (Tofieldieae) 

This  tribe  is  represented  in  the  Far  West  by  2  genera  and  4 
species. 


NOTES  ON   WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS  41 

Bog-Asphodel  (Narthecium,  syn.  Abama) 

Narthecium  is  a  small  genus  of  five  species :  One  each  in  Europe- 
west  Asia,  east  Asia,  Northeastern  United  States,  Southeastern 
United  States,  and  in  the  Pacific  area  of  this  country.  They  are 
perennial  bog  plants  from  fibrous-rooted  rootstocks,  with  basal 
tufts  of  grasslike  clasping  (eqintant)  leaves,  and  racemes  of  small, 
greenish  or  yellowish  6-parted  flowers  with  a  somewhat  3-lobed 
stigma  and  6  woolly  stamens.  The  fruiting  capsules  are  slender 
and  beaked,  with  numerous  tailed  seeds. 

The  type  of  the  genus  is  the  Old  World  Narthecium  ossifragum 
(L.)  Huds.,  (syn.  Anthericum  ossifragum  L.)  which  Fernald  in 
the  new  Gray's  Manual  (69)  says  gets  its  name  ossifragum  (Latin, 
for  bone-breaker)  because  it  "was  formerly  supposed  to  break  the 
bones  of  sheep  feeding  on  it."  Miiller  (IJrS)  and  Long  (123)  men- 
tion that  the  plant  contains  the  glucoside  narthecin,  has  a  record  of 
poisoning  cattle  and  that  "a  cat  died  after  drinking  the  milk  of 
an  affected  cow."  The  whole  genus  is  under  suspicion. 

The  significance  of  the  name  Narthecium  seems  to  be  contro- 
versial. Some  say  it  is  an  anagram  of  Anthericum.  Fernald  (69) 
explains  it  as  derived  from  Greek  uarthekion,  a  small  chest.  Nar- 
thecium was  first  published  by  Dr.  Paul  Gerhard  Heinrich  Moeh- 
ring  (the  eponym  of  our  genus  Moehringia),  a  physician  and  nat- 
uralist of  Dantzig,  Germany,  in  1742  but,  as  that  was  11  years 
before  Linnaeus'  "Species  Plantarum"  was  published,  the  name  has 
no  legality  under  the  Code.  Moehring  states  that  he  derived  the 
name  from  Greek  narthex,  the  common  giantfennel  (Ferula  com- 
munis L.)  of  the  Old  World,  whose  stems  were  used  as  rods  in  the 
Bacchanalian  processions  and  by  ancient  schoolmasters. 

Some  books  use  the  generic  name  Abama  Adans.  (1763)  in  the 
belief  that  Jussieu  published  Narthecium  in  1789;  however,  Nar- 
thecium was  validly  published  by  Hudson  in  1762  so  that  it  is  a 
year  older  than  Abama.  The  synonymous  name  Abama,  by  the 
way,  is  derived  from  the  Greek  (a-,  privative  -f  be  ma,  Doric  bama, 
footstep),  signifying  "unable  to  walk,"  referring  to  an  ancient 
belief  that  this  plant  caused  lameness  in  cattle. 

California  bog-asphodel  [JSarthecium  californiciim  Baker,  syn. 
Abama  calif ornica  (Baker)  Heller]  occurs  in  springy  and  boggy 
places  in  mountain  meadows  of  the  ponderosa  pine  belt  from  south- 
western Oregon  into  California.  It  has  slender  stems  1  to  2  feet 
high  and  narrow  racemes  of  yellowish  flowers.  The  writer  knows  of 
no  record  of  this  plant  being  grazed;  because  of  the  habitat  it 
would  be  more  likely  to  be  taken  by  cattle  or  horses  than  by  sheep 
but,  in  any  event,  it  should  be  viewed  with  suspicion. 

Tofieldia  (Tofieldia) 

Tofieldia,  sometimes  unfortunately  called  bog-asphodel,  is  a 
widely  distributed  genus  of  perhaps  25  species,  occurring  in  the 
Arctic,  North  America,  the  Andes  Mountains  of  South  America, 
also  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  is  named  for  Thomas  Tofield 
(1730-79),  a  British  botanist.    There  are  3  species  in  Alaska,  1 


42   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

species  each  in  the  Southeastern  and  Far  Western  States,  and  3 
species  in  the  Eastern  and  Central  States.  Tofieldias  are  herbs 
perennial  from  rootstocks,  with  chiefly  basal,  more  or  less 
2-ranked  and  sheathing  sedgelike  leaves ;  dense  spikelike  racemes 
or  panicles  of  small  6-parted  white,  greenish  or  yellowish  flowers 
with  6  stamens,  3  persistent  styles,  and  3-celled  fruiting  capsules 
opening  along  the  partitions  (septa)  with  the  withered  flower  seg- 
ments persisting  at  the  base.  The  western  range  species  is  tall 
tofieldia. 

Tall  tofieldia,  or  western  tofieldia  (Tofieldia  occidentalis  S. 
Wats.,  syn.  T.  intermedia  Rydb.),  ranges  in  marshes,  wet  meadows, 
peat  bogs,  and  other  like  sites  from  southern  and  southeastern 
Alaska  to  western  Montana,  (Saskatchewan?),  and  western  Wy- 
oming and,  along  the  Pacific,  south  to  California.  It  is  not  known 
to  occur  in  Colorado  or  Utah  and  is  in  Nevada  only  in  the  Lake 
Tahoe  region,  near  the  California  border.  The  stems  are  solitary 
or  several,  4  inches  to  2  feet  high,  sticky-pubescent  toward  the  top 
with  black  glands,  and  clothed  at  the  base  with  fine  short  fibers 
(the  residue  of  old  leaves  and  sheaths).  The  flowers  vary  from 
pale  greenish  to  yellowish  white  or  yellow.  The  seeds  have  a  tail- 
like appendage. 

The  (typically  Alaskan)  form  known  as  Tofieldia  intermedia 
Rydb.  is  smaller  than  T.  occidentalis,  has  narrower  and  paler  floral 
segments,  the  inflorescence  is  less  open,  the  bractlets  subtending 
the  flowers  are  fused  less  than  two-thirds  of  their  length  and  are 
fixed  close  to  the  flower  instead  of  at  the  middle  of  the  flower  stalk 
(pedicel)  and,  with  the  pedicels,  are  almost  free  from  glandular 
hairs ;  the  capsules,  moveover,  are  more  rounded  and  are  not 
narrowed  at  the  base.  However,  the  intergradations  between  these 
two  species  are  so  numerous  and  confusing  that  most  botanists 
today  consider  T.  intermedia  a  synonym  of  the  older  T.  occidentalis. 

The  forage  values  of  tall  tofieldia  need  further  study.  Occasional 
reports  are  made  that  it  is  taken  by  cattle  and  sheep  with  fair  or 
fairly  good  relish,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  this  plant  has  been 
confused  with  associated  sedges  or  other  plants.  There  appears 
to  be  no  history  of  this  genus  as  poisonous  plants.  However,  be- 
cause of  the  close  relationship  of  these  plants  to  known  poisonous 
plants  such  as  bog-asphodel  (Narthecium),  crowpoison  (Ammi- 
anthium),  swamppink  (Helo7iias),  bunchflower  (Melanthium), 
false-hellebore  (Veratrum),  and  deathcamas  (Zigadenns),  it  seems 
safest  to  regard  tofieldias  with  suspicion  pending  more  positive 
knowledge  concerning  them. 

False-Hellebore  Tribe  (Veratreae) 

All  the  six  known  genera  of  this  tribe  possess  species  which  are 
known  to  contain  toxic  compounds.  Four  of  these  genera  are  rep- 
resented in  the  western  range  area. 


NOTES  ON   WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS  43 

Sabadilla  {Schoeuocatilon} 

Driiinniond    i^ahadilla    (Schoenocaulon    driitnniondii   A.    Gray)^ 

is,  save  for  S.  duhium  (Michx.)  Small  (syn.  S.  gracile  A.  Gray)  of 
the  Coastal  Plain  of  Florida  and  southern  Georgia,  the  only  species 
of  this  genus  occurring  in  the  United  States.  It  is  confined  to  dry 
plains  and  foothills  up  to  the  lower  woodland  type,  chiefly  in  clay 
soils,  from  western  Texas  to  southern  New  Mexico  and  south  into 
Mexico.  The  plant  has  a  narrow  elongated  bulb  clothed  with  black 
hairlike  fibers.  The  leaves  are  all  basal,  elongated  and  grasslike. 
The  small,  pale  green  narrow-petaled  flowers  occur  in  a  terminal 
spikelike  raceme  4  to  24  inches  long. 

Drummond  sabadilla,  although  it  seems  to  have  no  history  as  a 
stock-poisoning  plant,  should  be  watched  on  any  range  where  it 
may  grow  in  appreciable  stand  because  of  its  very  close  relation- 
ship to  drug  sabadilla  ^Schoenocaulon  officinale  (Cham.  & 
Schleeht.)  A.  Gray,  syns.  Sabadilla  officinarvm  Brandt  &  Ratzeb., 
Veratnim  sabadiUa  Retz.]  of  Mexico,  Guatemala,  (elsewhere  in 
Central  America?)  and  northern  South  America,  especially  Vene- 
zuela. Sabadilla  is  an  official  drug  and  insecticide  (216).  It  contains 
the  poisonous  alkaloid  sabadiUin  (C;.4H.-,.sNOs)  and,  during  World 
War  I  assumed  importance,  especially  in  England  in  the  manu- 
facture of  asphyxiating  and  tear-producing  gas  (1).  The  seeds, 
which  are  highly  toxic,  contain,  besides  sabadilla,  cevadine,  vera- 
tric  acid,  etc.  The  plant  is  occasionally  cultivated,  but  much  of  the 
commercial  crop  is  reported  to  be  taken  from  wild  plants  in 
Mexico  and  Venezuela  (159).  In  the  latter  country  it  is  used  as  an 
insecticide  for  cattle  and,  also  in  an  ointment,  for  human  para- 
sites. The  powdered  drug  is  also  imported  into  Europe  as  a  mor- 
dant for  dyes,  for  tanning  fine  leathers,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
disinfectants. 

Stenanthium  (Stenanthium) 

Stenanthium  is  a  small  genus  of  bulbous  herbs,  with  grasslike 
leaves,  racemes  or  panicles  of  somewhat  bell-like,  6-parted  flowers, 
6  included  stamens  with  kidney-shaped  (re^iiform)  anthers,  and 
3-celled,  3-beaked  fruiting  capsules  opening  along  the  partitions 
(septa).  Two  species  are  eastern,  one  western,  and  there  is  one 
species  each  in  the  Western  States,  Mexico,  and  Sakhalin  Island, 
eastern  Asia.  The  genus  seems  to  have  no  history  as  stock-poison- 
ing plants,  but  its  close  relationships  make  it  a  fit  object  for  sus- 
picion. One  eastern  species  featherfleece  (Stenanthium  rohustum 
S.  Wats.),  with  large  dense  panicles  of  whitish  flowers,  is  in  orna- 
mental cultivation ;  some  botanists  consider  it  merely  a  form 
[forma  robustum  (S.  Wats.)  Palmer  &  Steyermark]  of  the  other 
eastern  species,  grassy  stenanthium  [S.  gramineum  (Ker)  Mo- 
rong].    It  is  taller  and  more  robust  than  S.  gramineum,  with 

'JThe  species  is  named  in  honor  of  its  discoverer  and  collector,  Thomas 
Drummond  [(1790?)-1835],  Scotch  naturalist,  nurseryman,  and  explorer,  who 
was  associated  with  Franklin,  Richardson,  and  other  early  arctic-America 
explorers,  and  who  was  one  of  the  first  botanical  collectors  in  Texas. 


44   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

broader  leaves,   denser  panicles,   and   erect   instead   of  nodding 
fruiting  capsules. 

Western  stenanthiuiii  \_Stenanthiutn  occidentale  A.  Gray,  syn. 
Stenanthella  occidentalis  (A.  Gray)  Rydb.],  sometimes  called 
featherbell  and  mountainbell,  ranges  in  moist  or  wet  places,  such 
as  streambanks  and  high  mountain  swamps,  in  the  ponderosa  pine 
belt  to  timberline,  from  British  Columbia  and  Alberta  to  western 
Montana  and  south,  through  Washington,  Idaho,  and  Oregon,  to 
the  mountains  of  Trinity  County,  northern  California.  It  is  a 
rather  attractive  plant  in  bloom,  with  narrow,  mostly  basal  grass- 
like  leaves,  a  slender  stem  6  to  24  inches  high,  with  a  raceme  of 
nodding,  rather  bell-like,  brownish  or  dull  purplish  flowers  ap- 
pearing in  July  and  August.  It  is  not  known  to  be  grazed. 

False-Hellebore  (Veratrum) 

There  are  perhaps  9  valid  species  of  Veratrum  in  this  country, 
5  in  the  West,  3  in  the  East,  besides  one  endemic  in  Florida.  At 
least  45  species  have  been  proposed  from  the  Old  World,  especially 
in  Japan,  China,  Korea,  Mongolia,  and  Siberia.  The  genus  un- 
doubtedly needs  monographing  by  a  conservative  botanist. 

The  false-hellebores  are  tall,  robust  herbs,  with  unbranched 
leafy  stems  arising  from  a  short,  thick,  brownish  or  black,  poison- 
ous rootstock,io  which  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  layer  of  coarse 
fibrous  dead  leaf  sheaths  of  previous  years.  The  true  roots,  de- 
scending from  the  rootstock,  are  few  or  numerous,  "ropy" 
branched,  and  dark  colored  externally.  The  blackish  color  of  the 
roots  and  rootstock  conceivably  might  account  for  the  generic 
name  Veratrum,  as  that  word  seems  to  be  derived  from  Latin 
vere  (truly)  +  atrum  (black).  The  alternate  leaves  are  large, 
broad — of  an  ovate  or  lance-ovate  type — coarse,  plaited  or  folded, 
heavily  ribbed,  stemless  or  contracted  to  a  broad  sheath  at  the  base, 
and  are  gradually  smaller  and  narrower  near  the  top  of  the  stalk. 

The  numerous  and  relatively  large  flowers  are  dull  white,  green- 
ish, yellowish  or  purplish,  borne  in  showy  terminal  and  elongated 
panicles.  These  plants  have  6  persistent  petallike  parts  and  6 
stamens;  the  capsule  is  3-celled,  each  cell  containing  several  to 
many  broad-winged  seeds.  The  lower  flowers  are  often  male 
staminate)  only  or  the  staminate  and  female  (pistillate)  flowers 
may  occur  on  separate  plants. 

The  confusion  between  true  hellebore  (Hellehorus)  of  the  but- 
tercup family  (Ranunculaceae)  and  the  liliaceous  false-hellebore 
(Veratrum)  genus  is  very  ancient.  Greek  physicians  used  the 
rootstocks  of  "hellebore"  (hellehoros)  for  various  purposes,  but 
primarily  as  a  remedy  for  insanity,  and  the  Greek  verb  helleborido 
(literally,  "to  need  hellebore")  was  applied  to  a  person  who  was 
losing  his  mind.    These  oldtime  medical  men  distinguished  two 

loThe  toxicological  literature  on  this  genus  is  extensive,  among  which  the 
following  may  be  considered  as  representative:  Chesnut  and  Wilcox  (S9,  p. 
119-121),  Pammel  {152,  p.  381-382),  Hall  and  Yates  (88,  p.  2A3-2U) ,  Glover 
and  Robbins  {82,  p.  25-27),  Gail  and  Hahner  {77,  p.  5-6),  Sampson  {176, 
p.  38-JfO,  58-59),  Fleming    {72,  p.  35-36),  and  Muenscher    {HI,  p.  i5-Jf8) . 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS  45 

chief  types  of  hellebore :  Christmas-rose,  or  black  hellebore  (Helle- 
borus  niger  L.)  and  "white  hellebore,"  or  white  false-hellebore 
(Veratrum  album  L.).  It  seems  probable  that  the  Veratrwn  of 
the  ancient  Romans  was  HeUebonis  niger,  at  least  in  large  part, 
which,  incidentally,  has  blackish  roots.  To  avoid  confusion,  it 
seems  desirable  to  restrict  the  English  name  "hellebore"  to  the 
plant  genus  now  known  as  Helleborus,  and  to  call  the  genus  now 
known  as  Veratrum  "false-hellebore." 

The  common  name  "cornlily"  indicates  the  similarity  of  false- 
hellebore  leaves  and  their  stalk  arrangement  to  corn;  sometimes 
heard  for  these  plants  are  the  names  "cow-cabbage,"  "rarebell," 
and  "wild  corn" ;  the  name  skunkcabbage,  no  doubt,  alludes  to  the 
general  resemblance  of  the  young  plants  to  the  true  skunkcabbage 
ISymplocarpus  foetidus  (L.)  Nutt.,  syn.  Spathyema  foetida  (L.) 
Raf.],  a  foul-smelling,  broad-leaved  herb  of  the  Eastern  United 
States  and  eastern  Asia  and  belonging  to  the  arum  family.  In  the 
West  "skunkcabbage"  is  also  applied  to  another  bog  plant,  the 
related  American  yellow-skunkcabbage  (Lysichitnm  americanum 
Hult.  &  St.  John),  ranging  from  southern  and  southeastern  Alaska 
to  British  Columbia,  Idaho,  western  Montana,  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park  or  northwestern  Wyoming  and  south,  through 
Washington  and  Oregon,  to  California.  In  the  past  this  species 
has  been  confused  with  the  related  L.  camtschatcense  (L.)  Schotl 
of  northeastern  Asia  (101). 

The  roots  of  American  false-hellebore  (Veratrum  viride  Alton), 
an  eastern  species,  and  of  white  false-hellebore  (V.  album,  L.)  of 
Europe  yield  a  powerful  (and  more  or  less  toxic)  drug  which  is 
used  as  a  heart  and  arterial  sedative  (1J^7).  This  drug  contains 
various  related  alkaloids,  including  cevadine  (C32H53NO8),  which 
has  a  burning  taste,  produces  violent  sneezing,  and  dilates  the 
pupils;  jervine  (CocHarNOy,),  which  is  mildly  toxic,  and  veratrine, 
which  is  a  mixture  of  alkaloids,  chiefly  cevadine  and  veratridine 
(C-tH.vjNOii).  Veratrine  reduces  the  pulse  power  without  reduc- 
ing frequency,  but  an  overdose  results  in  very  low  pulse,  nausea, 
and  muscular  prostration.  Probably  the  poisonous  effect  on  live- 
stock is  similar  although  possibly  more  marked.  There  is  chemical 
evidence  that  similar  properties  reside  in  the  roots  of  western 
species  of  false-hellebore.  Incidentally,  the  physiological  effect  of 
black  hellebore  (Hellehonis  niger)  is  exactly  opposite,  as  it  is 
a  heart  stimulant. 

Western  false-hellebore  (Veratrum  californicum  E.  Durand,  syn. 
V.  speciosmn  Rydb.)  (fig.  10),  the  most  common  and  widely  dis- 
tributed of  the  western  range  false-hellebores,  occurs  from  south- 
ern British  Columbia  to  California,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  and 
western  Montana  and  is,  therefore,  native  to  all  eleven  Far  Western 
States.  In  the  (especially  older)  literature  it  is  often  confused 
with  the  Old  World  V.  album  and  the  eastern  V.  viride,  which  are 
distinct  species.  The  species,  always  conspicuous  when  a  feature  of 
the  landscape,  is  one  of  the  largest  herbaceous  perennials  of  moun- 
tain meadows,  marshy  bottom  lands,  streambanks,  and  the  like. 
It  is  at  its  best  as  regards  size  and  adundance  in  such  sites,  al- 


46   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  10. — Western  false- 
hellebore  {Veratrum  cali- 
fornicum  E.  Durand) . 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  47 

though  it  also  does  well  in  shallow  and  coarse  soils  of  moist  or 
springy  slopes  and  flats. 

Not  infrequently  this  herb  invades  and  dominates  eroded  but 
moist  flats  and  slopes,  and  in  serious  cases  of  depletion  is  some- 
times one  of  the  last  perennial  plants  of  the  meadow  association 
to  disappear.  It  ordinarily  forms  small  irregular  clumps  and,  as 
a  rule,  inhabits  open  sunny  sites.  These  clumps  in  some  cases  grow 
together  to  form  extensive  patches,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
herbaceous  vegetation.  The  plant  is  mainly  a  native  of  the  higher 
mountains,  usually  being  most  abundant  above  5,000  feet  elevation, 
from  the  ponderosa  pine  belt  to  timberline.  It  has  been  collected 
at  3,000  feet  in  northwestern  Oregon  and  at  11,000  feet  in  Colorado. 
It  appears  as  soon  as  the  snow  is  gone  and  reaches  maturity  within 
about  60  days. 

The  value  of  western  false-hellebore  as  a  forage  plant  for  domes- 
tic livestock  is  subject  to  considerable  variation;  investigators  and 
collectors  may  report  it  as  excellent,  unpalatable,  or  poisonous. 
The  roots  and  seeds  of  this  plant  are  highly  poisonous  but  are 
seldom  touched  by  livestock  under  range  conditions ;  the  herbage, 
when  fresh  and  succulent,  is  undoubtedly  more  or  less  poisonous. 
Horses  and  cattle  can  become  very  sick  by  eating  any  considerable 
quantity  of  the  fresh  leaves ;  a  few  cases  are  on  record  also  of 
human  beings  having  been  unwittingly  poisoned  by  using  the 
fresh  leaves  for  "greens."  After  frost  and  after  wilting,  when  the 
leaves  are  turned  brownish  or  reVldish,  the  herbage  appears  to  be 
harmless  and  sheep  will  sometimes  pick  off  the  leaves  or  even  eat 
the  plant  down  to  the  ground,  especially  the  foliage  and  the  pithy 
part  of  the  stalk,  so  that  it  then  may  be  valuable  sheep  forage  and, 
to  a  less  extent,  for  cattle. 

In  Colorado  the  species  is  practically  worthless  for  cattle  and 
only  poor  forage  for  sheep,  but  in  Montana  and  northern  Idaho  it 
is  fairly  good  for  sheep.  The  herb  is  little  used  and  rated  as  poor 
forage  for  both  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  Intermountain  States  and 
the  Southwest.  On  properly  grazed  ranges  in  California  and  parts 
of  the  Northwest  it  is  fairly  good  for  sheep,  fair  for  cattle,  and 
worthless  to  poor  for  horses,  with  the  use  largely  limited  to  spring 
and  fall.  Sheep  relish  the  young  shoots,  but  like  other  classes  of 
livestock  avoid  the  plant  throughout  the  main  growing  season, 
but  graze  it  again  after  the  foliage  has  been  frosted  and  has  be- 
come dry  and  brown.  The  use  of  western  false-hellebore  is  very 
much  greater  near  bed  grounds  or  driveways  and  where  sheep  or 
cattle  concentrate.  At  these  areas  and  on  overstocked  ranges,  the 
use  is  frequently  so  complete  that,  by  midsummer,  the  entire  plant 
is  eaten  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  soil.  This  concentrated  use, 
however,  is  usually  regarded  as  a  sign  of  serious  overstocking. 
In  Montana,  and  probably  elsewhere,  elk  and  deer  graze  the  plant 
with  impunity,  at  least  during  the  fall  and  winter. 

The  poisonous  materials  are  concentrated  in  the  root  and  the 
young  shoots  (89).  As  the  plant  matures,  the  poison  decreases  in 
the  aerial  parts,  so  that  the  species  is  practically  harmless  at  ma- 
turity or  when  killed  by  frost.  Although  all  kinds  of  livestock  may 


48   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

be  poisoned,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  danger  is  slight  where 
there  is  plenty  of  other  forage  and  the  animals  have  normal  appe- 
tites. Poisoning  usually  occurs  under  some  abnormal  condition, 
such  as  at  driveways,  bed  grounds,  overgrazed  ranges,  or  gather- 
ing pastures,  where  hungry  animals  eat  freely  of  this  plant  before 
grazing  other  forage.  Poisoned  animals  usually  recover  in  a  few 
days,  although  in  very  serious  cases  they  may  die  in  a  few  hours. 
However,  on  properly  grazed  ranges,  or  where  western  false-helle- 
bore is  mainly  a  fall  feed,  few  animals  are  poisoned,  and  deaths  are 
almost  unknown.  Vansell  and  Watkins  (205,  pp.  168-170)  report 
that  blossoms  of  western  false-hellebore  sometimes  cause  heavy 
losses  among  honeybees,  and  that  numerous  ants,  beetles,  flies, 
and  other  insects  are  killed  by  the  flowers.  Kennedy  and  Doten 
(112,  p.  1U2)  mention  the  use  of  the  flowers  by  sheep  during  June 
and  July  on  summer  ranges  of  western  Nevada. 

The  seeds  are  fatal  to  chickens,  which  occasionally  pick  them  up. 
Lambs  are  often  poisoned  by  eating  the  large  buds  and  the  crown 
when  the  plant  first  comes  up  in  the  spring.  The  symptoms  of 
poisoning  include  slobbering,  throat  burn,  vomiting,  extreme  heart 
depression,  weak  pulse,  labored  respiration,  and  general  paralysis. 
Death,  when  fatal  results  ensue,  is  from  asphyxiation ;  loss  of  sight 
frequently  occurs  also.  It  is  probable  that  the  roots  have  the  medic- 
inal properties  common  to  the  genus.  Remedies  prescribed  are 
stimulants,  such  as  digitalis,  strychnine,  atropine,  spirits  of  glon- 
ion,  etc.  Tannic  acid  with  alcohol,  permanganate  of  potash,  am- 
monia, raw  linseed  oil,  lard,  and  soda  are  also  reported  to  have 
been  administered  with  good  results.  Laudanum,  morphine,  and 
chloral  hydrate  are  used  to  alleviate  pain.  Warm  water  is  ad- 
ministered to  smaller  animals  to  help  vomiting  and  purging. 

Western  false-hellebore  is  a  very  distinctive  plant,  being  stout 
and  up  to  7  feet  tall,  with  large,  strongly  veined,  stemless  leaves 
and  a  long,  showy,  terminal  flower  cluster  consisting  of  numerous 
dull,  white  flov/ers.  The  leaves  are  frequently  punctured  by  insects 
and,  as  the  season  advances,  tend  to  lose  their  shape  and  color.  On 
favorable  sites,  however,  the  foliage  often  remains  green  until 
frost.  After  frost  the  plant  turns  brown  and  dry  so  that  any  such 
disturbance  as  wind  creates  a  harsh  rustle  of  the  leaves  (20^). 

The  roots  of  the  related  eastern  Veratrum  viride,  used  as  a  com- 
mercial insecticide,  are  gathered  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains, 
and  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that  V.  calif ornicum  is  now  being  ex- 
ploited for  that  purpose.  Supervisor  Thomas  (200)  of  the  Mendo- 
cino  National   Forest  reported    (August   12,    1952)    as   follows : 

"Quite  by  accident  it  was  found  that  the  root  of  this  plant  had  particular 
value  in  the  preparation  of  a  new  drug  used  to  combat  high  blood  pressure. 
This  new  drug  was  discussed  in  a  feature  article  in  a  recent  issue  of  the  Satur- 
day Evening  Post.  Experiments  were  carried  out  in  the  harvesting  of  this 
product  during  the  1951  season  and  also  in  preparation  of  the  medicine.  These 
experiments  were  so  successful  that  the  Riker  Laboratories  of  Los  Angeles 
applied  to  the  Forest  Service  for  a  permit  to  harvest  10,000  pounds  of  the  root 
during  the  1952  season.  An  area  of  considerable  size  southwest  of  Plaskett 
Meadows  has  been  laid  out  and  the  work  is  being  done  by  Ernest  Yockey  under 
contract  with  the  Riker  Laboratories.  The  collection  work  is  being  carried  out 
in  such  a  way  as  to  minimize  erosion.    After  the  roots  have  been  harvested. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  49 

the  area  -wui  be  sown  to  native  grasses,  which  should  improve  the  carrying 
capacity  for  livestock  and  also  reduce  the  danger  of  ei-osion.  It  is  expected 
that  these  sales  will  increase  in  future  years  and  that  many  of  our  mountain 
meadows  will  be  improved  as  a  result  of  this  type  of  sale." 

Eschscholtz  false-hellebore  IVeratrtim  eschscholtzii  A.  Gray,  syn. 
V.  eschscholtzianum  (Roem.  &  Schult.)  Rydb.]^^  ranges  from 
Alaska  to  Oregon,  Idaho,  western  Montana,  and  Alberta ;  it  is  in 
British  Columbia  but  doubtfully  in  Yukon.  It  occupies  wet  sites, 
chiefly  subalpine  or  subarctic  and  sometimes  wooded  swamps.  It 
is  a  thick-stemmed,  thick-rooted  herb  3  to  6I/2  feet  high,  with  large, 
mostly  oval  or  oblong  leaves  3  to  12  inches  long,  and  green  or 
greenish  flowers  subtended  by  leaflike  bractlets  often  equaling  or 
surpassing  the  flowers.  When  fresh,  all  parts  of  the  herbage  are 
more  or  less  acrid  and  poisonous ;  the  roots  and  seeds  are  doubtless 
highly  toxic.  After  frost  the  leaves  are  stripped  off,  especially  by 
sheep,  with  apparent  impunity.  Sheep  are  reported  to  have  been 
made  "temporarily  sick"  after  eating  the  plant  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  summer. 

It  is  probable  that  the  roots  of  Veratrum  eschscholtzii  may 
have  medicinal  or  insecticidal  properties  similar  to  those  of  the 
eastern  V.  viride  Alton,  with  which  it  is  frequently  confused  in  the 
literature.  The  two  species  have  entirely  distinct  ranges  and  there 
are  a  number  of  botanical  differences ;  for  example,  V.  eschscholtzii 
has  hairier  leaves,  shorter  stamens,  longer  floral  bracts,  and  the 
lower  panicle  branches  are  longer  and  more  drooping.  It  is  also 
frequently  confused  with  V.  calif ornicum  E.  Durand,  which  has 
largely  a  different  range,  nondrooping  and  denser  panicles,  non- 
foliaceous  floral  bracts,  and  paler  flowers  with  broader  segments 
("petals"). 

Fringed  false-hellebore  (Veratrum  fimbriatum  A.  Gray),  appar- 
ently confined  to  the  California  coast  in  Sonoma  and  Mendocino 
Counties,  is  interesting  because  of  the  conspicuously  fringed  floral 
segments,  or  "petals."  Taylor  (197)  found  that  plants  of  this 
species  dug  during  or  shortly  before  initial  top  growth  in  early 
spring  contained  nearly  twice  as  high  percentages  of  crude  alka- 
loids as  were  found  in  similar  plants  dug  in  July. 

Deathcamas  (Zigadenus,  syns.  Anticlea,  Toxicoscordion, 
Zygadenus) 

Aside  from  more  obvious  synonyms  and  names  clearly  referable 
to  other  genera,  38  species  of  Zigadenus  have  been  proposed,  4 
from  Mexico  and  Central  America,  2  from  Japan,  1  from  Siberia, 
and  the  remainder  from  the  United  States.  Of  these  31  native 
United  States  species,  it  is  probable  that  more  conservative  bota- 
nists would  not  accept  as  valid  more  than  about  15.   The  genus  is 


"Named  after  Johann  Fredrich  Eschscholtz  (1793-1831),  who  accompanied, 
as  surgeon  and  naturalist,  the  celebrated  Russian  navigator  and  explorer, 
Otto  von  Kotzebue  (1787-1846) — after  whom  Kotzebue  Sound  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  Alaska  is  named — on  some  of  his  expeditions.  Jepson  {lOA)  and 
Eastwood  {62)  have  given  accounts  of  Eschscholtz's  plant  collections  in 
California. 


50   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

widely  distributed  in  North  America  from  New  Brunswick  to 
Alaska  and  south  to  Florida  and  Guatemala.  Deathcamas  is 
represented  by  about  10  species  in  the  11  Far  Western  States,  as 
well  as  on  rangelands  in  Texas,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  Da- 
kotas.  These  species  occur  from  slightly  above  sea  level  (about  600 
feet  in  California)  up  to  12,000  feet  in  Utah.  They  grow  in  almost 
every  type  of  soil  and  flourish  in  both  dry  and  moist  situations, 
sometimes  actually  living  in  water.  Some  species  grow  in  clumps 
or  patches,  but  the  majority  are  mixed  with  a  variety  of  other 
herbaceous  plants.  Usually  most  species  seek  full  sunlight,  but  a 
few  prefer  shaded  sites. 

These  plants,  sometimes  known  as  "poison-camases,"  "poison- 
segos,"  "poison-soaproots,"  "white-camases,"  "zygadene,"  and 
erroneously  as  "lobelias,"  are  most  commonly  called  deathcamases, 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  somewhat  similar,  edible  (and  mostly 
blue-flowered)  camases  (Camassia  spp.,  syn.  Quamasia  spp.)  with 
v/hich  they  are  often  confused.  The  generic  name  Zigadenus^^  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  words  ^vyo-v  (yoke)  -f-  dSy'jv  (gland)  and 
refers  to  the  characteristic,  yoked,  or  paired  petal  glands  of  the  type 
species,  Atlantic  deathcamas  (Z.  glaberrimiis  Michx.)  of  the  East- 
ern States.  In  the  western  species  these  two  glands  are  united  into 
a  single  gland  found  at  the  base  of  each  flower  (^perianth)  segment. 

Deathcamases  are  perennial  herbs  from  bulbs  and/or  rootstocks 
(rhizomes),  with  a  leafy  or  leafless  stem  varying  in  height  from  a 
few  inches  to  4  feet.  The  plants  are  smooth  (glabrous)  with  long, 
narrow,  grasslike  leaves  arising  from  the  base;  sometimes  the 
leaves  and  stems  are  covered  with  a  whitish  bloom  which  rubs  off 
easily.  The  flowers  are  greenish  white  or  yellowish  in  color,  being 
set  rather  closely  in  terminal  racemes  or  panicles  and  are  either 
perfect  or  have  male  and  female  flowers  as  well  (imperfect).  The 
flower  clusters  elongate  as  the  plant  matures.  The  six  similar  floral 
segments  (peria7ith)  are  divided  to  the  base  and  bear  one  or  two 
glands.  These  flower  parts  wither  but  persist  on  the  plant  until  the 
fruiting  capsules  dehisce  and  the  seeds  are  dispersed.  The  6  sta- 
mens have  1-celled  anthers  and  are  either  free  to  the  base  or  at- 
tached to  the  petallike  floral  segments;  they  are  about  the  same 
length  as  the  segments.  The  styles  are  distinct  to  the  base,  and 
the  3-lobed  and  3-celled  capsule  splits  from  the  top  along  the  3 
partitions,  releasing  the  numerous  angled  seeds. 

Rydberg  (170)  in  1903  revived  Kunth's  genus  Anticlea  and  pub- 
lished a  new  segregate  Toxicoscordion,  stating  that,  for  consist- 
ency, Zigadenus  should  be  divided  into  these  three  genera:  (1) 
Plants  with  a  rootstock  and  two  glands  (Zigadenus);  (2)  plants 
with  a  bulb  and  single  gland,  ovary  wholly  superior  (Toxicoscor- 
dion);  (3)  plants  with  a  bulb  and  single  gland,  ovary  partly  in- 
ferior (Anticlea);  some  species  of  Anticlea  have  the  gland  so 
deeply  lobed  as  almost  to  appear  double.  More  conservative  botani- 
cal opinion,  however,  prefers  to  regard  these  characters  as  of  sec- 


^^xhe  spelling  Zygadenus  is  preferable  etymologically  and  commonest  in 
literature  but,  according  to  the  Code  of  nomenclature,  Michaux's  original 
spelling  Zigadenus  should  be  used. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  51 

tional  or  subgeneric  weight  only,  and  to  consider  Anticlea  and  Toxi- 
coscordion  as  synonyms  of  Zigadenus. 

Presumably  all  species  of  Zigadenus  are  more  or  less  toxic  both 
for  animals  and  man.  The  most  common  and  important  western 
species  are  probably  grassy  deathcamas  (Z..  gratnineus  Rydb.), 
meadow  deathcamas  (Z.  venenosiis  S.  Wats.),  foothill  deathcamas 
[Z.  panictilatns  (Nutt.)  S.  Wats.],  and  mountain  deathcamas  (Z. 
elegans  Pursh).  Of  these  grassy  and  meadow  deathcamas  are 
the  most  dangerous.  The  more  virulent  species  of  deathcamas 
cause  the  majority  of  sheep  losses  from  poisonous  plants  on  spring 
and  early  summer  ranges  because  they  are  green  and  succulent 
far  in  advance  of  most  others  plants  (129,  133).  Plants  of  this 
genus  are  usually  dried  up  before  the  sheep  reach  the  higher  sum- 
mer ranges,  and  hence,  as  a  rule,  are  not  then  a  source  of  tempta- 
tion to  that  class  of  livestock.  Cattle  are  seldom  poisoned  unless 
forced  to  graze  on  heavily  infested  areas  where  other  forage  is 
scarce.    Horses  rarely,  if  ever,  eat  deathcamas. 

Marsh  (129)  gives  the  symptoms  of  deathcamas  poisoning  as 
frothing  at  the  mouth,  nausea  with  vomiting,  great  weakness  ac- 
companied sometimes  with  nervousness  and  resulting  in  collapse 
of  the  animal,  which  may  lie  without  food  for  hours,  or  even  days, 
before  death.  White  permanganate  of  potash,  aluminum  sulfate, 
and  bleeding  have  been  recommended  (39,  196)  as  remedies  for 
deathcamas  poisoning,  the  only  practical  defense  or  control,  under 
range  conditions,  is  to  keep  the  animals  away  from  heavily  in- 
fested areas  (131).  All  parts  of  these  plants  are  more  or  less  toxic 
and  sometimes  very  small  quantities  will  produce  injury.  The 
mature  seeds  are  especially  toxic  but,  fortunately,  the  plants  are 
dry  and  not  very  palatable  at  the  time  of  seed  dissemination  (131, 
U6). 

Early  western  explorers  frequently  mentioned  the  poisonous 
deathcamases  and  their  likeness  to  camases,  whose  edible  bulbs 
were  used  extensively  as  food  by  the  Indians.  Despite  the  fact  that 
the  Indians  were  familiar  with  the  danger  in  deathcamas,  many 
cases  of  poisoning  occurred  among  them.  The  Indians  believed 
that  deathcamas  bulbs  possess  medicinal  value.  Chemical  analyses 
(9U,  12h)  have  shown  the  presence  of  mixed  alkaloids  which  hasten 
the  heartbeat  and  make  it  irregular,  slow  the  respiration,  cause 
convulsions,  and  have  a  powerful  purgative,  emetic,  and  diuretic 
action;  also  of  an  alkaloid  called  zygadenine  (CsoHcsNOio)  which 
behaves  in  general  very  much  like  the  powerful  heart-depressant 
veratrme  (Cs-HioNOn),  a  group  of  poisonus  substances  frequently 
occurring  in  plants  of  the  bunchflower  family  and  which  appar- 
ently does  not  cause  convulsions  (12^).  Additional  toxic  alkaloids 
have  been  isolated  from  deathcamases  by  Prof.  Jacobson  of  the 
Nevada  Agricultural  College  and  others,  and  the  toxicological 
chemistry  of  these  plants  must  still  be  regarded  as  in  the  investiga- 
tive stage. 

At  certain  stages  of  growth,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distin- 
guish deathcamas  from  such  related  but  harmless  plants  as  camas 
(Camassia),  onion  (Allium),  brodiaea  (Brodiaea),  and  mariposa 


52   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

(Calochortus).  Deathcamases  often  grow  in  association  with 
onions  and  brodiaeas,  or  "wild  hyacinths."  During  the  early- 
spring,  when  these  plants  are  about  3  to  4  inches  high,  they  all 
look  very  much  alike.  Onions  can  be  identified  easily  by  noting  the 
strong  characteristic  onion  odor.  If  the  onion  odor  is  not  present 
and  if,  upon  cutting  a  cross  section  of  the  leaf,  the  midrib  is  dis- 
tinctly hollow,  forming  a  hollow  tube  the  length  of  the  leaf,  the 
plant  may  be  a  brodiaea. 

Camases  usually  are  in  bloom  in  the  early  spring  and,  as  nearly 
all  of  them  have  blue  or  bluish  flowers,  they  are  not  likely  to  be 
mistaken  for  deathcamas.  After  both  camas  and  deathcamas  are  in 
fruit,  it  may  again  be  somewhat  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
them.  The  leaves  fold  up  lengthwise  in  deathcamas,  while  camas 
leaves  remain  flat.  The  mature  capsules  of  deathcamas  are  usually 
smaller,  more  pointed  and  beaked,  narrower  in  proportion  to  the 
length,  and  split  along  the  partitions  separating  the  3  cells,  where- 
as the  ripe  capsules  of  camas  split  loculicidally  down  the  midrib 
on  the  back  of  the  3  cells.  The  mariposas  (including  sego-lily)  are 
easily  distinguished  as  the  majority  of  them  have  only  one  or 
two  basal  leaves. 

Mountain  deathcamas  [Zigadenus  elegans  Pursh,  syns.  Anticlea 
elegans  (Pursh)  Rydb.,  Z.  chloranthus  Richards.,  Z.  coloradensis 
Rydb.]  ranges  from  Alaska  south  to  eastern  Oregon,  Nevada, 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  western  Montana,  and  Manitoba. 
This  is  a  species  mainly  of  wet  mountain  meadows,  occasionally 
40  inches  tall,  with  relatively  large  and  showy,  whitish,  cream- 
colored  or  yellowish  flowers,  the  perianth  segments  ("petals") 
about  %  inch  (9-10  mm.)  long,  the  basal  glands  reverse  heart 
shaped  (obcordate),  ovary  partly  inferior,  the  middle  floral  bracts 
thin  (scarious)  margined  and  tipped,  and  the  fruiting  capsules 
about  twice  as  long  as  the  flowers.  It  is  often  confused  in  litera- 
ture with  white  deathcamas  (Z.  glaucus  Nutt.),  a  wholly  eastern 
and  midwestern  species,  which  is  closely  related  but  quite  distinct. 
Marsh  and  Clawson  (136)  found  that  mountain  deathcamas  is 
only  about  a  seventh  as  toxic  as  Z.  gramineus  and  "while  it  may 
poison  livestock  (it)  probably  does  little  or  no  damage  under 
practical  range  conditions." 

Grassy  deathcamas  (Zigadenus  gramineus  Rydb.,  syns.  Toxi- 
coscordion  gramineum  Rydb.,  Z.  intermedius  Rydb.)  ranges  from 
Saskatchewan  to  South  Dakota,  Colorado,  Utah,  Idaho,  and  eastern 
Washington.  It  appears  to  be  absent  from  Oregon,  California,  Ari- 
zona, and  New  Mexico.  It  is  a  smooth  bulbous  plant  8  to  14  inches 
high — rarely  as  low  as  4  inches  or  as  high  as  20  inches,  the  linear 
leaves  4  to  8  inches  long  and  all  provided  with  distinct  membran- 
ous sheaths;  the  light  yellow  flowers  have  the  3  long-clawed, 
ovate,  blunt-tipped  petals  somewhat  heart  shaped  (subcordate)  at 
base,  the  3  lower  floral  segments  (sepals)  broadly  ovate,  blunt 
tipped  and  very  short  clawed  at  base;  the  margins  of  the  basal 
glands  are  not  sharply  defined;  the  ovary  is  wholly  superior. 

The  species  occurs  on  hills  and  meadows  between  elevations  of 
about  4,000  and  7,000  feet,  usually  in  sandy  or  gravelly  soils ;  it  is 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  53 

found  in  scattering  stand  in  sagebrush  and  open  park  areas  and, 
to  a  lesser  extent,  in  open  aspen  and  high  benchlands.  It  was  long 
confused  with  the  better  known  meadow  deathcamas  (Zigadenus 
venenosvs)  and  is  now  known  to  be  even  more  poisonous.  Mc- 
Laughlin (126)  found  that  an  intravenous  injection  of  an  extract 
of  this  plant  resulted  in  a  respiratory  inhibition  in  sheep  which,  in 
large  doses,  caused  a  form  of  asphyxia.  Marsh  and  Clawson  (129, 
130)  reported  it  as  the  most  dangerous  of  all  species  of  deathcamas. 

Foothill  deathcamas  ^Zigadenus  paniculatus  (Nutt.)  S.  Wats.] 
(fig.  11),  sometimes  called  "panicled  deathcamas,"  "panicled  zyga- 
dene,"  and  "sandcorn,"  ranges  from  Saskatchewan  and  Montana 
to  northwestern  New  Mexico,  northern  Arizona,  Nevada,  Cali- 
fornia (largely  on  the  east  side  of  the  Sierra  Nevada),  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  Idaho.  It  is  a  fairly  stout  perennial  herb,  occa- 
sionally as  much  as  30  inches  high,  from  a  large  bulb.  The  sheath- 
ing leaves  are  6  to  16  inches  long,  mostly  from  or  near  the  base, 
relatively  broad  (up  to  10  mm.,  or  %  inch  wide).  The  flowers, 
pale  yellow  or  greenish  or  yellowish  white,  are  small,  numerous, 
in  a  dense  terminal  panicle;  the  perianth  segments  are  small  (not 
over  5  mm.,  or  V-,  inch)  long,  abruptly  contracted  into  a  short 
claw  and  sometimes  almost  heart  shaped  (suhcordate)  at  base, 
rather  sharp  tipped,  the  upper  margins  of  the  obovate  basal  glands 
thin,  toothed,  and  not  sharply  defined;  the  stamens  are  exserted 
and  the  ovary  superior. 

The  plant  grows  mostly  on  dry  open  hillsides  between  elevations 
of  2,000  and  9,000  feet,  occasionally  on  flats;  its  typical  habitat 
is  loose  sandy,  gravelly  or  even  rocky  sites,  but  it  is  sometimes 
found  in  moist  to  wet  loamy  or  even  clayey  situations,  generally 
scattered  and  rather  sparse  but  occasionally  growing  in  a  dense 
stand.  As  a  general  rule  livestock  will  not  touch  this  plant  except 
when  other  feed  is  scarce.  Losses  are  most  apt  to  occur  early  in  the 
spring,  for  this  is  one  of  the  first  plants  to  appear.  Marsh  and 
Clawson  (129,  130)  report  that,  although  this  plant  is  only  about 
one-third  as  poisonous  as  Zigadenus  gramineus  and  Z.  venenosus, 
it  "causes  serious  losses  of  sheep,  more  particularly  in  Utah  and 
Nevada." 

Meadow  deathcamas  [^Zigadenus  venenosus  S.  Wats.,  syn.  Toxi- 
coscordion  venenosum  (S.  Wats.)  Rydb.]  is  found  from  British 
(Jolumbia  to  California,  Utah,  Nebraska,  and  South  Dakota,  its 
altitudinal  range  extending  from  1,400  to  8,000  feet.  The  species 
prefers  rich,  moist  bottom  lands  and  lower  foothills,  but  sometimes 
grows  on  rocky  sites.  This  plant  does  not  ordinarily  appear  in  pure 
stands,  but  is  very  plentiful  on  some  overgrazed  ranges.  It  is  a 
smooth,  bulbous  perennial  herb  about  10  inches  to  2  feet  tall ;  the 
upper  leaves  are  without  sheaths;  the  inflorescence,  about  4  to  8 
inches  long,  is  usually  a  simple  raceme,  elongating  in  fruit.  The 
small  greenish  or  yellowish  flowers,  appearing  during  May  and 
June,  have  both  sepals  and  petals  distinctly  clawed  and  more  or  less 
heart  shaped  (suhcordate)  at  base,  the  basal  glands  with  a  thick 
toothed  margin.  Seed  dissemination  is  largely  in  July  and  August. 
The  specific  name  venenosus  is  a  Latin  word  meaning  poisonous. 


54   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-216493 

Figure  11. — Foothill  deathcamas  [Zigadenus  paniculatns    (Nutt.)    S.  Wats.]. 
Flowering  panicle  at  right;  part  of  fruiting  stalk  at  left. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  55 

Meadow  deathcamas  is  one  of  the  most  toxic  of  our  western 
rnnge  plants  (132),  probably  the  best  known  of  all  the  death- 
camases,  and  is  responsible  for  the  loss  of  thousands  of  sheep.  It 
is  particularly  dangerous  on  early  spring-  ranges  when  it  furnishes 
green,  succulent  feed  in  advance  of  many  other  plants.  The  best 
way  to  prevent  losses  is  to  herd  the  sheep  away  from  the  areas 
which  are  heavily  infested.  Cultivation  will  kill  meadow  death- 
camas, but  good  range  management  is  probably  the  most  practical 
method  of  permanent  control,  especially  if  supplemented  by  the 
seeding  of  suitable  range  grasses  to  crowd  out  the  meadow  death- 
camas. Sheep  are  not  likely  to  eat  the  plant  if  plenty  of  other  for- 
age is  available.  Losses  seldom  occur  on  the  high  summer  range,  as 
there  is  then  an  abundance  of  other  succulent  forage  and  the 
meadow  deathcamas  plants  become  dry  and  unpalatable  before  the 
sheep  arrive, 

Fremont  deathcamas  (Zigadenus  fremontii  Torr.,  syn.  Z.  doiig- 
lasii  Torr.),  named  for  its  discoverer,  "The  Pathfinder,"  General 
John  Charles  Fremont,  is  a  chiefly  Pacific  Coast  Range  species  from 
the  Coquille  River,  Coos  County,  southwestern  Oregon,  south  to  at 
least  San  Diego,  Calif.  It  has  large  flowers  for  the  genus,  the  white 
or  yellowish  floral  segments  often  being  about  one-half  inch  long. 
Bailey's  Cyclopedia  (8)  lists  it  as  probably  the  most  promising 
species  of  the  genus  for  ornamental  cultivation.  Marsh,  Clawson 
and  Marsh  (133)  list  it  as  poisonous,  and  a  report  from  the  Lassen 
National  Forest,  Calif.,  states  that  local  stockmen  claim  it  to  be 
"deadly  poison,  the  bulb  especially"  for  both  sheep  and  cattle. 

SMIL  AX  SUBFAMILY  (SMILACOIDEAE) 

This  subfamily,  considered  by  some  botanists  as  a  distinct  fam- 
ily, is  represented  in  this  country  by  the  following  genus : 

Smilax,  or  Greenbrier  (Smilax) 

This  is  a  very  large  genus,  chiefly  occurring  in  tropical  America 
and  Asia.  Most  of  the  species  are  woody,  often  spiny  and  prickly 
vines  arising  from  thickened  often  tuberous  rootstocks  and  climb- 
ing by  tendrils  from  the  leafstalks  (petioles) ;  the  fruit  is  a  berry. 
There  are  two  species  only  in  the  western  range  country,  California 
smilax  or  greenbrier  [Smilax  calif ornica  (A.  DC.)  A.  Gray]  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Oregon,  a  woody  vine,  and  the  herbaceous  carrion  flower 
(S.  herhacea  L.),  which  is  found  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
United  States  and  occurs  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Great  Plains 
regions,  as  well  as  in  some  areas  of  the  East,  in  the  much  shorter- 
peduncled  and  woolly-veined  .S.  herhacea  var.  lasioneuron  (Hook.) 
A.  DC.  [svns.  S.  lasioneuro7i  Hook.,  Nemexia  lasioneuron  (Hook.) 
Rydb.]. 

The  western  smilaxes,  or  greenbriers,  are  of  no  or  very  limited 
forage  value  for  domestic  livestock,  although  hogs  will  sometimes 
root  up  and  eat  the  rhizomes.  Some  birds  and  rabbits  will  eat  the 
berries  and  deer  may  crop  the  leaves.  The  eastern  species  have 
about  the   same   values   except  that   laurel   smilax   or   greenbrier 


56   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

(Smilax  laurifolia  L.)  has  been  reported  from  southwest  Georgia 
as  highly  palatable  to  cattle.  To  the  woodsman  smilaxes  are  often 
an  egregious  pest  because  of  their  spininess  and  impediment  to 
progress. 

Tropical  American  species  of  Smilax,  such  as  Mexican  sarsapa- 
rilla  (S.  aristolochiae folia  Mill,  syn.  S.  medica  Cham.  &  Schlecht.) 
and  drug  sarsaparilla  (S.  officinalis  Kuntli),  are  the  source  of  com- 
mercial sarsaparilla.  Certain  Asiatic  species,  such  as  Java  smilax 
(S.  macrocarpa  Blume),  and  Ceylon  smilax  (S.  zeylanica  L.)  are 
being  studied  (64^)  for  their  apparent  medicinal  value  in  uremic 
poisoning. 

IRIS  FAMILY   (IRIDACEAE) 

The  iris  family,  closely  allied  to  the  lily  family,  is  composed  of 
herbaceous  plants  perennial  from  (often  acrid)  rootstocks  (rhi- 
zomes), corms  or  bulbs.  The  leaves  are  relatively  narrow,  parallel 
veined,  equitant  (i.  e.,  overlapping  in  2  rows)  ;  the  flowers  (often 
large  and  showy)  consist  of  3  petals,  3  sepals,  3  stamens  alter- 
nating with  the  petals,  and  a  more  or  less  inferior  ovary  with  a 
usually  3-lobed  stigma.  The  fruit  is  a  3-celled  capsule  splitting  be- 
tween the  partitions  (locidicidaUi/  dehiscent),  with  many  (often 
large)  seeds,  the  withering  perianth  (petals  and  sepals)  falling 
off  from  the  summit.  There  are  four  range  genera  of  the  family, 
provided  (as  possibly  the  majority  of  botanists  agree)  that  Hij- 
dastylus  and  Nemastylis  be  regarded  as  distinct  genera  and  pro- 
vided that  Olsyniiim  and  Oreolirion  be  regarded  as  synonyms  of 
Sisyrinchium.  The  family  appears  to  be  relatively  unimportant 
on  the  range,  though  the  members  need  further  study  from  the 
range  viewpoint.  Iridaceae  include  many  important  ornamentals ; 
for  example,  Crocus  and  Gladiolus,  as  well  as  Iris,  belong  to  this 
family. 

Iris  (Iris) 

Iris  is  an  enormous,  widespread  genus,  with  perhaps  15  valid 
species  in  the  western  range  area,  12  of  which  are  confined  to  the 
Pacific  region.  Other  common  names  are  flag,  flag-lily,  fleur-de-lis, 
snake-lily,  and  waterflag.  Generally,  irises  are  found  in  moist  to 
wet  sites,  or  in  situations  where  plenty  of  moisture  is  present  early 
in  the  season  during  the  main  growth  period,  despite  that  such 
sites  subsequently  become  very  dry.  However,  the  distribution  of 
irises  in  the  West  is  spotted  rather  than  general,  although  these 
species  frequently  are  so  abundant  on  favorable  sites  that  they 
form  nearly  pure  stands. 

In  general  the  palatability  of  irises  to  domestic  livestock  is  zero. 
They  are  sometimes  important  obstacles  to  range  improvement,  in 
that  they  tend  to  increase  on  overgrazed  areas  adapted  to  their 
growth,  and  when  once  established  greatly  retard  the  regeneration 
of  palatable  forage  species.  The  rhizomes  of  some  species  are 
known  to  be  poisonous  and,  if  ever  eaten,  would  be  a  source  of 
danger. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  57 

The  genus  is  of  great  commercial  ornamental  importance.  The 
American  Iris  Society  has  recognized  some  19,000  named  commer- 
cial varieties  and  hybrids  which  have  been  developed  through  in- 
tensive cultivation,  and  practically  all  natural  species  are  in  cul- 
tivation (111). 

The  Indians  formerly  used  the  tough,  flexible  fibers  from  the  leaf 
margins  of  certain  species,  such  as  Oregon  iris  (Iris  tenax  Dougl.)^ 
in  making  strong  twine  for  snares  and  nets.  They  also  used  the 
rhizomes,  or  rootstocks  of  blueflag  iris  (I.  versicolor  L.),  a  wide- 
spread species  in  the  Eastern  United  States,  as  a  remedy  for 
stomach  disorders.  Henkel  (93)  states  that  the  Indians  are  re- 
puted to  have  grown  this  plant  for  its  medicinal  value  and  that 
both  Indians  and  whites  used  an  extract  of  the  rootstock  of  this 
species  as  an  alterative,  diuretic,  purgative,  and  as  a  remedy  for 
dropsy. 

The  rootstock  is  listed  as  an  official  drug  in  the  United  States  Dis- 
pensatory (lJf7).  In  1895,  Rusby  (169)  reported  that  the  root- 
stocks  of  bkieflag  iris  contain  irisiyi  (C.HioOs),  a  starchlike  com- 
pound, an  oleoresin,  and  an  apparently  toxic  glucoside  iridin 
(Co^Ho.jOia).  The  rhizome  in  the  fresh  state  possesses  consider- 
able potency  as  a  cathartic  and  emetic.  It  has  no  odor,  but  the 
taste  is  acrid  and  nauseous.  In  1911  Power  and  Salway  (163),  in 
further  analysis  of  the  roots  of  this  species,  disclosed  that  the  prin- 
cipal compounds  are  yellow  oil,  isophthalic  acid,  salicylic  acid, 
tannin,  sugar,  and  resins  containing  fatty  acids. 

In  addition  to  Iris  versicolor,  the  rootstocks  of  four  other  iris 
species  are  listed  as  official  drugs  (216;  111,  p.  197),  viz:  German 
iris  (Iris  germanica  L.)  ;  orrisroot  iris  (I.  germanica  var.  florentina 
Dykes,  syn.  I.  florentina  Ker  not  L.,  the  latter  an  uncertain  name)  ; 
sweet  iris  (I.  pallida  Lam.),  and  Virginia  iris  (I.  virginica  L.). 
Commercial  orrisroot  (most  of  which  is  imported  from  Italy), 
used  in  medicine,  as  a  sachet  powder,  for  dry  shampoos,  and  for 
cleaning  teeth,  is  derived  from  the  rhizomes  of  orrisroot  iris  and 
sweet  iris,  mentioned  above.  The  seeds  of  yellowflag  iris  (I.  pseu- 
dacorus  L.),  an  Old  World  species  naturalized  in  the  country,  have 
been  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

By  far  the  commonest  and  most  widely  distributed  western 
species  of  this  genus  is  Rocky  Mountain  iris  (Iris  mis  sour  iensis 
Nutt.)  (fig.  12),  which  ranges  from  North  Dakota  to  British  Colum- 
bia, southern  California  (Pacific  range  is  mainly  east  of  Cascades 
and  Sierra  Nevada  Divide),  and  New  Mexico.  It  is  the  only  native 
iris  in  the  entire  Rocky  Mountain  area  unless  one  or  two  segregates 
of  it  are  accepted.  It  is  a  perennial  herb  from  thickened,  dark, 
fibrous-coated,  underground  rootstocks.  The  rather  slender  stems 
are  8  to  20  (occasionally  40)  inches  tall,  leafless  or  with  but  a  single 
leaf  above  the  middle ;  the  showy,  pale  blue  flowers  are  subtended 
by  two  rather  broad  and  contiguous,  thin  pale  and  dry  (scarious) 
bracts,  the  flower  tube  narrowed  below  and  short  (under  V2  inch). 

The  plant  is  chiefly  found  in  bottom  lands  or  moist  situations,  in 
meadows  and  parks,  at  elevations  upward  to  10,000  feet.  It  gen- 
erally grows  in  small  clumps  or  patches  but,  under  favorable  con- 


58   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  12. — Rocky  Mountain  iris  (Iris  ^uissoitrieHsis  Nutt.). 


ditions,  may  occur  in  dense,  nearly  pure  stands  of  considerable 
size.  However,  it  also  frequently  grows  in  such  sites  as  gravelly 
hillsides  which  dry  out  during  the  summer.  This  species  flowers 
from  May  to  July,  depending  on  latitude  and  elevation.  If  moisture 
is  available  the  plants  remain  green  throughout  the  summer,  other- 
wise they  dry  up  in  midsummer  after  seed  matures. 

Rocky  Mountain  iris  is  ordinarily  worthless  as  a  forage  plant 
but,  when  its  stand  is  increasing,  it  may  be  an  indicator  of  over- 
grazing, as  its  robust  underground  (undoubtedly  more  or  less  pois- 
onous) rootstocks  enable  it  to  withstand  trampling  and  to  spread 
rather  rapidly  when  other  vegetation  is  weakened.  However,  it 
has  been  reported  as  good  bear  feed  on  the  Santa  Fe  National  For- 
est (New  Mexico)  and  has  been  noted  as  nibbled  after  frost  on  the 
Sitgreaves  National  Forest  (Arizona).  This  species,  when  once 
extensively  established,  greatly  retards  the  revegetation  of  the 
range  by  more  palatable  plants.  It  is  a  good  soil  binder  but  its 
characteristic  habitats,  moist  rich  soils,  are  potentially  capable  of 
supporting  other  plants  of  equal  soil-holding  qualities  and  of 
greater  forage  value. 

Coville  (J^7)  found  that  Klamath  Indian  medicine  men  some- 
times used  the  rootstocks  of  this  plant,  mixed  with  the  bulbs  of 
meadow  deathcamas  (Zigademts  venenosus  S.  Wats.)  and  a  little 
tobacco,  as  smoking  material  for  their  "patients."    This  induced 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  59 

severe  nausea  and  resulted  in  a  heavy  fee  to  make  the  sick  man 
well  again. 

The  following  two  species  may  be  cited  as  representative  of  the 
group  of  native  Pacific  States  irises : 

1.  Foothill  iris  (Iris  hartwegii  Baker),  known  also  as  Hartweg 
iris  and  Sierra  iris,  is  a  small  California  iris,  ranging  chiefly  in 
foothills  of  the  Coast  Mountains  and  Sierra  Nevada — in  the  latter 
as  far  south  as  Kern  County  and,  in  the  former,  practically  the 
entire  length  of  the  State ;  it  also  occurs  up  into  the  mixed  conifer 
type  in  the  mountains.  The  species  is  a  frequent  associate  of 
deathcamas  on  dry  ridges.  The  stems  are  4  to  12  inches  high,  the 
basal  leaves  equalling  or  surpassing  them.  There  are  usually  two 
flowers ;  they  vary  in  color  from  yellow  with  lavender  veins  to 
dark-veined  forms  with  lilac  on  the  border  of  the  ''petals"  and  the 
inner  part  yellow;  the  stout  floral  tube  is  very  short  (about  14  inch 
long).  The  species,  as  do  a  number  of  western  plants,  commemo- 
rates Karl  Theodor  Hartweg  (1812-71),  a  native  of  Germany  and 
early  western  botanical  explorer  and  collector. 

2.  Tube  iris  (Iris  macrosiphon  Torr.),  sometimes  called  "ground 
iris,"  is  a  native  of  the  California  coastal  ranges.  It  has  a  slender 
rootstock;  low  slender  somewhat  flattened  stems  IV2  to  8  inches 
high,  the  basal  leaves  much  surpassing  them ;  linear-fance-shaped, 
long-tapered  bracts,  and  1  or  2  bright  blue  or  purplish  flowers,  the 
floral  tube  very  slender  and  elongated — 11/2  to  31/4  inches  long. 
Neither  of  the  above  two  species  appears  to  have  any  forage  signifi- 
cance ;  both  are  in  ornamental  cultivation. 

Blue-Eyedgrass  (Sisyrinchmm) 

There  are  perhaps  16  western  range  species  of  this  genus,  the 
number  depending  on  one's  specific  concept  (for  many  segregates 
have  been  proposed)  and  on  whether  or  not  are  included  the  yellow- 
flowered  Oreolirion  group  and  the  monotypic,  large-reddish-purp- 
lish-flowered Olsynium  with  filaments  united  at  the  base  only. 
These  plants  are  relatively  small  herbs  perennial  from  fibrous  roots 
and  a  short  rhizome ;  the  leaves  are  linear  and  2  edged  or  2  winged ; 
the  flowers  are  mostly  rather  small,  regular,  blue  or  bluish  except 
in  albino  forms  and  in  the  Olsynium  and  Oreolirion  sections,  in  a 
small,  almost  umbel-like  cluster  subtended  by  bracts  (spathe) ,  the 
perianth  segments  ("petals")  usually  ending  in  a  short  point  (api- 
culate) ,  the  pistil  surrounded  by  the  stamen  tube.  The  fruiting  cap- 
sules are  globular  but  somewhat  bluntly  3  angled,  containing 
small  spherical  seeds.  Most  of  the  species  are  characteristic  of 
moist  meadows  and  streambanks  but  occasionally  they  occur  in 
drier  places.  Probably  in  general  they  are  of  slight  or  negligible 
forage  significance,  but  there  appear  to  be  exceptions  and  further 
t-tudy  of  the  matter  is  strongly  indicated. 

The  following  five  briefly  annotated  species  are  among  the  most 
typical  range  members  of  this  genus  : 

1.  Common  blue-eyedgrass  (Sisyrinchintn  an gusti folium  Mill., 
syns.  S.  anceps  Cav.,  S.  gramineum  Lam.),  with  narrow  leaves 
drying  blackish,  and  often  nearly  equaling     the  stems,  the  two 


60   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

bracts  of  the  spathe  about  the  same  length,  is  the  most  widespread 
of  our  native  species ;  it  ranges  from  Newfoundland  and  Quebec  to 
British  Columbia  and  south  to  Montana,  Colorado,  Kansas,  Texas, 
and  Florida.  As  a  rule  this  plant  is  regarded  as  negligible  from 
the  forage  standpoint. 

2.  California  blue-eyedgrass  (Sisyrinchium  helium  S.  Wats.), 
also  known  as  western  blue-eyedgrass  and  nigger-babies  and,  by 
Spanish-speaking  people,  as  ''azalea"  and  "villela,"  is  the  common 
blue-eyedgrass  of  California  and  Lower  California,  growing  almost 
everywhere  in  moist  meadows  and  grassy  hillsides  from  near  sea 
level  to  the  ponderosa  pine  type  but  rare  in  desert  and  other  dry 
areas.  The  stems  are  about  4  to  20  inches  high,  noticeably  over- 
topping the  leaves,  and  are  marked  in  this  genus  because  of  the 
possession  of  one  or  more  nodes,  or  joints,  from  each  of  which 
proceed  from  1  to  4  flower  stalks. 

The  flowers  are  bluish  or  violet  purple,  with  a  yellow  "eye,"  and 
the  6  segments  (petallike  parts)  are  relatively  broad,  with  4  to  6 
nerves,  cut  and  toothed  at  the  apex.  The  two  spathe  bracts  are 
nearly  equal  in  length ;  the  stamen  filaments  are  united  to  the  top, 
and  the  fruiting  capsules  are  brownish  green.  According  to  present 
knowledge,  the  forage  value  of  this  plant  is  unimportant;  it  is 
sometimes  cultivated  as  an  ornamental,  a  situation  suggested  by 
its  scientific  name  helium  (Latin  adjective  for  beautiful).  A  re- 
lated species,  with  the  similar  habit  of  branching  stems,  is  sticky- 
pod  blue-eyedgrass  (S.  radicatum  Bickn.).  It  has  elliptical  glandu- 
lar fruits.  This  species  occurs  in  moist-wet  sites  from  "desert"  to 
mountain  types  in  Wyoming,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  northern  Arizona. 

3.  Douglas  blue-eyedgrass  [Sisyrinchium  douglasii  A.  Dietr., 
syns.  S.  grarcdiflorum  Dougl.  (1830)  not  Cav.  (i790),  Olsynium 
douglasii  (A.  Dietr.)  Bickn.]  occurs  along  streams,  in  moist  mead- 
ows, and  the  like  from  the  big  sagebrush  to  the  ponderosa  pine 
and  aspen  types,  from  British  Columbia  to  northern  California, 
Nevada,  Utah,  and  Idaho.  The  plant  is  6  to  14  inches  high;  the 
stems  are  somewhat  flattened  but  are  not  margined  or  winged ;  the 
basal  leaves  are  much  reduced  and  bractlike ;  the  outer  bract  of  the 
spathe  is  much  elongated  and  overtops  the  flowers;  the  reddish 
purple  (rarely  white)  flowers,  the  largest  among  our  native  species, 
appear  early  (March-April),  the  segments,  or  petal  like  parts  up 
to  20  mm.,  or  %  inch  long,  the  stamen  stalks  (filaments)  are  united 
at  the  base  only,  the  pistil  stalk  (style)  much  longer  than  the 
stamens.  The  plant  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  an  ornamental ;  it  is 
generally  considered  negligible  as  forage. 

4.  Idaho  blue-eyedgrass  (Sisyrinchium  idahoense  Bickn.)  (fig. 
13)  occurs  in  mostly  low-altitude,  moist  grasslands  from  southern 
British  Columbia  to  western  Montana,  Wyoming,  Idaho,  and 
California.  It  is  a  fibrous-rooted  perennial  wath  slender,  un- 
branched,  mostly  leafless,  winged  flowering  stems  4  to  16  inches 
high.  The  firm  basal  leaves,  about  half  as  long  as  the  stems,  are  nar- 
row (1  to  3.5  mm.  broad).  The  flowers,  on  hairless  (glabrous)  stalks 
vary  from  pale  blue  (almost  white)  to  violet  purple,  with  a  small 
yellow  eye,  the  6  perianth  segments   ("petals")   about  %  to  %, 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


61 


F- 194458 

Figure  13. — Idaho  blue-eyedgrass  (Sisyrinchium  idahoense  Bickn.). 


occasionally  nearly  %  inch  long,  ending  in  a  sharp  tip  (aristulate), 
the  ovary  glandular ;  the  2  spathe  bracts  dissimilar,  green  or  some- 
what purple,  often  deflexed,  often  shorter  than  the  flowers,  the 
inner  broader  and  shorter  than  the  1  to  21/0 -inch-long  outer  bract. 
The  species  apparently  is  of  no  forage  significance. 

5.  Montana  blue-eyedgrass  (Sisyrinchium  occidentale  Bickn.) 
occurs  from  Montana  and  Idaho  to  Nevada,  Utah,  Wyoming, 
Colorado,  and  New  Mexico;  possibly  also  in  North  Dakota.  The 
flower  segments  are  one-half  inch  long  or  more,  deep  blue  or  pur- 
plish and  rounded  at  the  tip;  the  fruiting  capsules  are  rounded 
and  smooth.  Alkali  blue-eyedgrass  (S.  halophilum  Greene),  grow- 
ing in  alkaline  meadows  of  the  sagebrush  and  woodland  types  of 
Wyoming,  Utah,  and  Nevada,  is  closely  related  but  the  flowers  are 
smaller,  paler,  the  segments  sharp  tipped  and  the  fruiting  capsules 
fine-hairy  (puherulent).  The  forage  value  of  both  species  generally 
appears  to  be  negligible  but  both  have  been  observed  to  be  limitedly 
grazed  by  cattle. 


ORCHID  FAMILY   (ORGHIDACEAE) 

This  well-known  family,  represented  in  the  western  range  area 
by  16  genera  and  70  species,  is  of  little  or  no  forage  importance. 
The  family  provides  many  cultivated  ornamentals.  Despite  its  im- 
mense size,  it  is  of  little  economic  interest.  The  roots  of  our  native 


62   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  Kil,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  widely  distributed  small  yellow  ladyslipper  [Cypripedium  cal- 
ceolus  var.  parviflorum  (Salisb.)  Fern.,  syn.  C.  parviflovum  Salisb.] 
are  an  official  drug  used  as  an  antispasmodic.  The  leaves  of  Bour- 
hontea  [Jiimellea  fragrans  (Thouars)  Schlcchter,  syn.  Angraecum 
fragrans  Thouars],  a  native  orchid  of  the  Mascarene  Islands  (east 
of  Madagascar),  furnish  a  fragrant,  tealike  beverage  known  as 
Bourbon  tea  and  faham  tea,  popular  in  France  and  elsewhere. 
Mexico  is  the  chief  source  of  the  familiar  flavoring  extract  derived 
from  the  "beans"  or  pods  of  vanilla  (Vanilla  planifolia  Andrews). 
Saleps,  used  as  food  and  for  their  starches  and  gums,  are  derived 
from  the  tubers  of  European  species  of  Orchis  and  East  Indies  spe- 
cies of  Eulophia. 

NETTLE  FAMILY  (URTIGACEAE) 

So  far  as  the  western  range  is  concerned  this  family  consists  of 
three  genera  and  about  a  dozen  species.  The  only  genus  of  any 
range  significance  is  Urtica.  The  family  is  closely  related  botani- 
cally  to  the  elm-hackberry  (Ulmaceae) ,  mulberry-fig-Osage-orange 
(Moraceae),  and  hemphops  (Cannabinaceae)  families  which  were, 
in  fact,  included  in  Urticaceae  in  the  older  botanies.  Our  species 
are  annual  or  perennial  herbs,  more  or  less  hispid  or  hairy  (in  two 
genera  with  stinging  hairs)  ;  leaves  opposite  or  alternate,  simple, 
toothed  or  entire,  with  or  without  stipules ;  flowers  small,  greenish, 
in  loose  clusters  from  the  leaf  axils  or  in  catkinlike  spikes,  perfect 
or  one-sexed,  the  sexes  sometimes  separated  on  individual  plants ; 
there  are  no  petals ;  the  calyx  is  2  to  5  (often  4)  lobed,  the  (often  4) 
stamens  are  coiled  like  a  watchspring  and,  when  released,  are  able 
to  fling  the  pollen  for  quite  a  distance ;  the  fruit  is  dry  (an  achene), 
flattened  of  ovoid,  covered  by  the  persistent  calyx,  and  with  a 
straight  embryo.  Ramie  (Boehmeria  nivea),  the  strongest  of  all 
fibers,  belongs  to  this  family. 

One  of  the  genera,  hesperocnide  (Hesperocnide)  consists  of  but 
one  Calif ornian  species  (there  is  another  in  Hawaii)  ;  it  is  an 
opposite-leaved  annual  with  stinging  hairs,  similar  to  the  genus 
Urtica  but  with  technical  floral  distinctions,  and  apparently  has  no 
range  significance.  It  is  sometimes  called  by  the  trite  name  "west- 
ern nettle"  (a  translation  of  the  Greek  generic  name). 

A  second  genus  is  pellitory  (Parietaria),  with  three  range  spe- 
cies. They  are  small  annuals  with  alternate  leaves,  no  stipules, 
and  no  stinging  hairs.  Probably  the  best-known  species  is  the  Old 
World  wall  pellitory  (P.  officinalis  L.),  common  on  walls  and  houses, 
and  formerly  an  official  drug  plant  as  a  diuretic. 

Nettle  (Urtica) 

This  genus,  with  about  eight  range  species,  consists  of  annual 
or  perennial  herbs,  with  opposite  leaves  of  an  ovate  or  lanceolate 
type,  having  the  borders  sharply  toothed  or  cut ;  stipules  present 
at  the  base  of  the  leafstalks ;  flowers  4  parted,  the  segments  of  the 
pistillate  (female)  flowers  have  the  2  outer  ones  usually  smaller 
than  the  2  inner  ones ;  the  achenes  are  compressed.    Nettles  are 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  63 

generally  regarded  as  pests  because  of  the  stinging  hairs,  which 
livestock  (especially  horses)  and  people  tend  to  avoid. 

The  Old  World  bigsting  nettle  (IJrtica  dioica  L.)  and  dog  nettle 
(V.  urens  L.).  which  are  widely  naturalized  in  this  country,  are 
generally  thought  to  be  worse  than  our  native  species.  The  skin 
rash  caused  by  nettles  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  urticaria,  though 
that  term  is  more  often  used  by  physicians  for  blotches,  wheals, 
or  rash  caused  by  some  digestive  disturbance  or  allergy.  The  red- 
dening, intense  burning,  swelling  and  itching  due  to  these  plants 
may  remain  for  only  a  few  minutes  or  last  for  hours ;  the  stinging 
tips  of  the  hairs  break  off  under  the  skin. 

Feldberg  (68)  claims  that  the  irritating  properties  of  Urtica 
dioica  are  not  due  to  formic  acid,  as  has  commonly  been  reported, 
but  to  a  combination  of  acefi/cJwUne  and  histamin  (both  of  which, 
incidentally,  occur  in  ergot).  Long  (123)  mentions  the  death  of  a 
dog  from  this  species  reported  in  Berliner  Tierarztliche  Wochen- 
schrift  (1909).  It  is  of  interest  in  this  connection  that,  in  a  letter 
to  me  dated  March  26,  1958,  Dr.  William  L.  Giles,  Superintendent 
of  the  Delta  Branch  Experiment  Station,  Stoneville,  Miss.,  states 
that  "for  the  past  year  or  two  hunters  in  the  Mississippi  Delta 
have  been  reporting  cases  of  hunting  dogs  becoming  lame  and  some 
of  them  dying  as  a  result  of  poisoning  from  the  (locally  very  com- 
mon) Urtica  chamaedryoides  Pursh." 

With  a  few  possible  exceptions  the  palatability  of  nettles  to 
domestic  livestock  varies  from  nil  to  low;  deer  sometimes  crop 
them  a  little.  Despite  their  unpopularity,  nettles  are  not  without 
some  economic  interest.  Smith  (183),  in  annotating  Urtica  dioica, 
says :  "Cultivated  in  France  as  an  early  soiling  crop  for  mules  and 
milch  cows.  The  seeds  are  fed  to  horses.  It  grows  in  arid,  sandy, 
and  stony  land  and  in  very  cold  places  where  few  other  crops 
succeed." 

Available  analyses  appear  to  indicate  that  nettles  are  high  in  pro- 
tein. For  example,  Herbage  Abstracts  for  March  1936,  in  furnish- 
ing notes  from  P.  F.  Medvedev's  paper  The  Nettles  of  the  U.S.S.R.: 
Specific  Composition,  Distribution  and  Utilization  (1934) 
states :  "Nettles,  particularly  annual  forms,  are  superior  to  lucerne 
or  clover  in  mineral  content,  and  to  lucerne,  Sudan  grass  *  *  *  in 
protein  *  *  *  The  plants  are  therefore  excellent  fodder  and  have 
been  so  used  in  northern  countries  for  many  years.  The  presence 
of  vitamins  A  and  C  in  the  green  forage  renders  it  valuable  ***" 
Fernald  and  Kinsey  (70)  refer  to  the  popularity  of  nettles  among 
country  people  in  Europe,  especially  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as  a 
potherb  and  for  the  former  use  of  the  flaxlike  fibers  for  making 
sheets  and  tablecloths,  for  which  purpose  some  considered  it  more 
durable  than  linen.  Occasional  reports  are  heard  of  the  use  of 
nettles  as  a  spinach  substitute  in  this  country;  one  must  assume 
the  plants  are  garnered  with  heavy  gloves. 

Perhaps  the  two  commonest  range  species  are  narrowleaf  nettle 
(Urtica  gracilis  Aiton)  and  Lyall  nettle  (U.  lyalli  S.  Wats.).  Nar- 
rowleaf nettle,  sometimes  called  slender  nettle,  ranges  from  New- 
foundland and  the  Hudson  Bay  region  to  Alaska  and  south  to  Cali- 


64   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

fornia,  Arizona,  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  North  Carolina.  It  occurs 
in  a  variety  of  sites,  waste  places  (fence  rows,  old  fields,  etc.), 
damp  woods,  canyons,  rich  alluvial  soils  along  streams,  etc.  In  the 
mountains  it  is  found  chiefly  in  the  ponderosa  pine  belt,  and  is 
often  common  locally.  In  Colorado  is  occurs  between  elevations  of 
4,000  and  9,000  feet.  Livestock  generally  avoid  it,  and  it  is  com- 
monly regarded  as  w^orthless  for  forage. 

Chesnut  (37)  refers  to  narrowleaf  nettle  covering  thousands  of 
acres  of  reclaimed  swampland  in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  and 
to  the  difficulties  of  cultivation  due  to  its  presence.  Blankinship 
(27)  notes  that  the  Sioux  Indians  called  the  root  of  this  plant 
"shanpi"  or  "wicaro  nakum"  and  used  it  "as  a  remedy  for  retention 
of  urine"  (reminiscent  of  the  fact  that  the  roots  of  the  Old  World 
Urtica  dioica  L.  and  [/.  pilulifera  L.  have  diuretic  properties,  fide 
Lyons).  Blankinship  continues:  "the  bark  appears  to  have  been 
used  for  cordage  and  the  young  shoots  were  employed  as  a 
potherb." 

Lyall  nettle  (Urtica  lyallii  S.  Wats.)r.  ranging  along  streams  and 
in  bottom  lands  from  Vancouver  Island  and  British  Columbia  to 
California,  and  Idaho,  is  similar  to  narrowleaf  nettle  but  with  con- 
siderably broader  leaves.  It  is  named  for  Dr.  David  Lyall,  surgeon 
botanist  of  the  U.S.  Canadian  International  Boundary  Survey 
(1858-60).   Ordinarily  it  is  regarded  as  worthless  for  forage. 

BUCKWHEAT  FAMILY  (POLYGON ACE AE) 

This  is  a  moderately  large,  rather  widely  distributed  family, 
represented  in  the  western  range  area  by  about  12  genera  and  315 
species,  of  which  the  greater  part,  except  perhaps  for  the  genus 
Eriogoniim  (which  is  particularly  well  developed  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region),  occur  in  California.  The  bulk  of  the  36  range 
species  of  Chorizanthe  (low,  often  prostrate  or  spreading  annual 
or  perennial  herbs)  occur  in  California ;  those  species  with  awned 
floral  involucres  are  called  "spineflower"  and  two  species  (Palmer 
spineflower,  C.  palmeri  S.  Wats.,  and  Turkish-rug,  C.  staticoides 
Benth.)  are  occasionally  cultivated  as  ornamentals  in  warm  dry 
areas.  Common  buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum  Moenoh,  syn. 
F.  sagittatum  Gilib.)  occurs  as  an  occasional  escape  from 
cultivation. 

Four  annuals  of  monotypic  genera  are  confined  to  California: 
jjoldcarpet  (Gilmania  liiteola  Coville,  syn.  PhijUogo7ium  hdeohim 
Coville),  hollisteria  (Hollisteria  lanata  S.  Wats.),  wooliyheads 
(JSemacaulis  denudata  Nutt.),  and  pterostegia  (Pterostegia  dry- 
marioides  Fisch.  &  Mey.).  In  addition,  there  are  in  California  two 
other  introduced  annuals:  Spiny  emex  lEmex  spinosa  (L.) 
Campd.]  from  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and  lastarriaea  (Lastar- 
riaea  chilensis  Remy)  apparently  from  C^hile.  None  of  these  an- 
nuals is  known  to  have  any  particular  forage  significance. 

From  the  range  standpoint  there  are  three  important  genera : 
Eriogoninn,  Pohjgo7ium  (including  its  segregates),  and  Rumex. 
This  importance  is  due  more  to  the  great  number  of  species,  wide 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  65 

distribution,  and  abundance  than  to  high  palatability.  In  addition 
to  a  number  of  cultivated  ornamentals  and  buckwheat,  the  family 
contains  the  garden  rhubarb  (Rheum  rhaponticum  L.)  and  the 
medicinal  rhubarbs,  especially  sorrel  rhubarb  (R.  palmatum  L.), 
the  latter  also  grown  as  an  ornamental  foliage  plant.  Polygonaceae 
are  herbs,  vines,  shrubs  or  trees,  with  mostly  alternate  (sometimes 
opposite  or  whorled)  and  entire  leaves;  the  stipules  usually  united 
into  a  sheathing  tube  (ocreae) ;  small,  2-  to  6-parted  flowers,  a 
superior  ovary,  and  a  dry  indehiscent,  1-celled,  1-seeded  fruit 
fachene). 

Eriogonum  (Eriogonum) 

Eriogonums  form  an  exclusively  North  American  genus ;  there 
are  about  175  species  in  the  11  Far  Western  States,  the  Rocky 
Mountains  area  being  the  chief  center  of  distribution,  and  all  but  4 
species,  outside  of  the  comparatively  few  Mexican  ones,  occur  be- 
tween the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Mississippi  River.  Various  local 
names  are  applied  to  these  plants,  including  catsfoot,  grouseweed, 
Indian-tobacco,  and  wild  buckwheat.  Growth  habit  within  the 
genus  is  variable.  The  species  may  be  annuals  or  perennial  herbs, 
undershrubs  or  shrubs.  Most  species  have  taproots ;  some  of  the 
undershrubs  have  spreading  or  prostrate  stems  which  tend  to 
root  at  the  joints  or  near  the  ends. 

The  herbaceous  eriogonums  frequently  have  but  one  main  stem, 
which  may  be  either  simple  or  branched  and  with  or  without  leaves. 
Those  species  inclined  to  be  shrubby  usually  have  several  stems,  but 
often  the  flower-bearing  parts  are  herbaceous,  erect,  and  leafless 
(scapelike).  The  leaves  are  simple  and  entire,  and  in  many  her- 
baceous species  are  basal,  but  they  may  also  occur  alternately  or 
in  whorls  on  the  stems.  The  small  individual  flowers  are  jointed 
to  a  slender  stalk  (pedicel),  with  6  segments  in  2  rows,  9  stamens, 
and  3  styles,  and  are  arranged  in  umbels,  heads,  cymes,  racemes  or 
other  clusters,  often  compounded,  various  groups  of  flowers  more 
or  less  protruding  from  a  4-  to  8-toothed  or  lobed  involucre.  The 
fruit  is  a  3-angled  or  3-winged  achene. 

The  eriogonums  appear  at  practically  all  elevations,  from  sea 
level  to  above  timberline.  However,  throughout  their  range  they 
are  primarily  plants  of  essentially  dry  situations  preferring  rocky, 
sandy,  and  well-drained  soils  in  regions  of  moderate  or  low  rainfall, 
and  can  even  withstand  long  dry  summers.  Most  of  them  grow  in 
exposed,  sunny,  and  warm  sites,  even  when  associated  with  brush 
or  conifer  and  other  woodland  types.  The  genus  is  perhaps  most 
abundantly  represented  in  the  foothill  areas,  especially  those  bor- 
dering the  deserts  of  the  Intermountain,  Southwestern,  and  Cali- 
fornia regions. 

As  a  group,  the  eriogonums  are  inferior  forage  plants.  Their 
importance  is  due  to  abundance,  wide  geographic  distribution,  and 
great  number  of  species.  Their  use  is  limited  largely  to  spring  and 
fall  or  winter.  In  the  spring  the  new  growth,  especially  in  the 
herbaceous  species,  is  somewhat  succulent,  so  that  livestock  tend  to 
crop  it,  or  to  nip  off  the  flower  heads  as  they  develop.   Because  of 


66       AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  absence  of  more  palatable  forage  during  the  fall  or  winter,  the 
somewhat  shrubby  species  are  at  least  slightly  grazed.  Taken  as  a 
whole,  the  eriogonums,  so  far  as  their  herbage  is  concerned,  prob- 
ably average  from  worthless  to  poor  for  cattle,  and  from  poor  to 
fair  for  sheep.  Livestock,  however,  particularly  sheep,  are  fond 
of  the  flowering  tops  and  frequently  pick  these  off  and  ignore  the 
rest. 

The  eriogonums  seldom  form  extensive  patches  or  become  the 
dominant  vegetation,  but  are  characteristically  scattered  with 
greater  or  less  frequency  among  associated  plants ;  exceptions  to 
this  rule  include  the  local  concentration  of  some  annual  species  on 
depleted  areas. 

Economic  notes  for  four  shrubby  eriogonums  are  given  in  Im- 
portant Western  Browse  Plants  (54)  and  the  Range  Plant  Hand- 
book (204).  Brief  notes  on  some  of  the  commonest  herbaceous 
species  follow. 

Wing  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  alatum  Torr.)  (fig.  14),  a  rather 
coarse  hairy  herb  perennial  from  an  elongated  thick  taproot, 
ranges  from  the  Panhandle  area  of  Texas,  through  western  Okla- 


F-305158 

Figure  14. — Wing  eriogonum    {Eriogonnm  alatum  Torr.)    and  nodding  erio- 
gonum (E.  cernuum  Nutt.). 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  67 

homa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  to  southern  Wyoming,  Utah,  and 
Arizona.  The  stout  erect,  usually  single  stem  is  12  to  40  inches 
high.  The  leaves  are  mainly  in  a  basal  tuft,  of  a  reverse  lance- 
shaped  type  with  the  broader  end  forward,  hairy  above,  about  1 
to  4  inches  long,  the  stalks  of  old  leaves  persisting  on  the  root- 
crown.  Greenish  yellow  flowers  appear  mainly  during  July  and 
August  in  open  panicles.  The  fruits  are  3  winged,  relatively  large 
(about  14  irich  long)  achenes. 

Wing  eriogonum  occurs  scatteringly  from  sagebrush  plains  to 
foothills  and,  in  the  mountains,  up  to  the  ponderosa  pine  and 
Engelmann  spruce  belts,  chiefly  in  rather  dry  sandy  soils.  The 
plant  is  seldom  touched  by  cattle;  the  tops  are  the  part  chiefly 
nibbled;  when  sufficiently  abundant  it  is  considered  as  a  fair 
species  on  southwestern  goat  and  sheep  ranges.  The  root  was 
used  medicinally  by  certain  Indians  (109,  191). 

There  are  two  annuals  of  no  importance  for  grazing  but  worthy 
of  mention  because  of  commonness.  (1)  Nocldin«;  eriogonum 
(Eriogonum  cernuiim  Nutt.)  (fig.  14)  is  often  plentiful  in  waste 
places  and  in  overgrazed  areas  on  plains,  foothills,  and  canyons 
upward  to  the  spruce  belt.  It  ranges  from  Alberta  and  Saskatch- 
ewan, to  Nebraska,  Kansas,  New  Mexico,  California  (Colorado 
desert),  and  eastern  Oregon.  This  annual  grows  from  6  to  16 
inches  high,  with  a  much-branched  inflorescence.  The  small 
white  or  pinkish  flowers  are  borne  in  numerous,  characteristically 
nodding,  stalked  clusters  scattered  along  the  branches  of  the  in- 
florescence. (2)  Broom  eriogonum  (E.  vimineiim  Dougl.)  has 
several  wiry  branching  stems,  a  somewhat  broomlike  appearance, 
and  is  borne  rather  stifily  erect.  The  rather  few,  stalkless,  rose- 
colored,  or  yellowish  flowers  are  clustered  at  the  ends  of  the  panicle 
branches.  Its  range  is  from  eastern  Washington  and  Idaho  south 
to  California  , Arizona,  and  southwestern  Utah. 

Closely  related  to  the  preceding  species  (Eriogonum  vimineiim) 
is  sorrel  eriogonum  (E.  polycladon  Benth.)  a  densely  white-wooly 
annual  with  erect,  many-branched  stems  from  about  12  to  20  inches 
high.  Its  numerous,  bright  rose-pink  flowers,  rather  suggestive  of 
sorrel,  are  borne  in  slender,  one-sided  racemes.  It  occurs  in  dry, 
open,  sandy,  or  gravely  plains  and  foothills  from  western  Texas  to 
Arizona  and  northern  Mexico  and  has  a  little  local  utility  as  a  sheep 
and  cattle  weed.  Bidwell  and  Wooton  (22)  have  published  a  chemi- 
cal analysis  of  this  plant.  Kearney  and  Peebles  (109)  mention 
that  in  southern  Arizona  it  is  ''so  common  at  roadsides  and  in 
washes  as  to  color  the  landscape  in  places  with  its  tall  gray  stems 
and  pink  flowers." 

As  a  vegetable  curiosity  perhaps  another  annual  (though  occa- 
sionally it  has  a  longer  life  span)  should  also  be  mentioned  here, 
viz  desert-trumpet  (Eriogonum  inflatum  Torr.).  It  ranges  from 
western  Colorado  (rare),  Utah,  Nevada,  and  New  Mexico  to  Cali- 
fornia, being  common  along  washes  and  on  mesas  and  deserts. 
As  the  Latin  specific  adjective  suggests,  the  swollen  tubular  stems, 
naked  except  for  the  basal  leaves,  are  inflated  and  trumpetlike 
near  their  ends.    After  the  terminal,  diffusely  branched  inflores- 


68       AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

cences  fall  off  (often  as  units)  and  are  blown  away,  the  remaining 
stems  whiten  and  tend  to  separate  at  the  joints  into  pieces,  which, 
when  strewn  over  the  ground,  have  given  rise  to  the  names  "cig- 
aretteplant"  and  "Indianpipe  weed."  The  young  stems  are  re- 
ported to  have  been  eaten  raw  by  Indians  (215). 

In  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  southern  Utah  is  another  common 
annual,  wirestem  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  pharnaceoides  Torr.). 
This  species  has  whorled  linear  leaves,  wiry  fine-hairy  stems  4 
to  12  inches  high,  and  open  whorl-bracted  cymes  of  rose-colored 
flowers.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  open  woodland  types.  Despite  its 
small  leafage  and  wiry  character,  it  is  cropped  a  little  in  summer 
by  sheep  and  cattle,  and  is  considered  to  provide  ''fair"  grazing 
on  the  Sitgreaves  National  Forest  (Arizona),  which  is  approxi- 
mately the  type  locality. 

Mat  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  caespitosum  Nutt.)  is  a  low,  densely 
matted  or  cushionlike  plant  occurring  largely  on  dry  mountain 
slopes  and  especially  in  volcanic  soils,  from  Montana  and  Idaho 
south  to  eastern  Oregon,  California  (east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada), 
Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming,  The  leaves  are  basal,  oval 
or  elliptic,  white-woolly  on  both  faces.  The  flowers  are  yellow, 
turning  purplish  or  reddish  in  age,  hairy  below,  several  together 
in  hairy  or  woolly,  deeply  lobed  involucres  solitary  at  the  ends  of 
naked  stems  1  to  3  inches  tall.  The  plant  has  practically  no  forage 
value,  though  sheep  on  summer  range  may  occasionally  nip  off  the 
skimpy  tops ;  it  serves  locally  as  ground  cover. 

Rush  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  datum  Doiigl.)  occurs  naturally 
on  dry  plains  and  gravely,  rocky  hillsides  from  Washington  to 
California,  Nevada,  and  Idaho.  It  has  rushlike,  sometimes  swollen 
and  almost  leafless  stems  occasionally  as  high  as  Si/o  or  4  feet,  with 
whitish  or  pinkish  flowers  at  the  ends  of  the  branches ;  root  and 
crov^m  are  woody.  The  large,  long-stalked  basal  leaves  somewhat 
suggest  those  of  a  small  arrowleaf  balsamroot  [Balsamorhiza 
sagittata  (Pursh)  Nutt.].   The  forage  value  is  insignificant. 

Yellow  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  flnvum  Nutt.),  perennial  from  a 
dark-colored,  thickened  woody  root,  ranges  from  southwestern 
British  Columbia,  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan  to  the  Black  Hills  of 
western  South  Dakota,  western  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  Colorado, 
Utah,  the  Kaibab  Plateau  of  northern  Arizona,  Nevada,  California, 
and  Oregon.  It  has  been  reported  from  eastern  Washington  but 
the  record  appears  doubtful ;  there  is  no  record  of  its  occurrence  in 
Montana  and  New  Mexico.  The  silky-hairy  stems  are  mostly  4  to 
10  inches  high,  with  thickish  crowded  spatula-shaped  leaves  per- 
manently snowy- white-woolly  beneath ;  the  flowering  umbels  have 
bright  yellow,  densely  pubescent  flowers  with  a  short  stipelike 
base. 

The  plant's  usual  habitat  is  rather  dry  hills,  canyons,  and  moun- 
tains up  to  about  3,000  feet  in  the  north  and  up  to  12,000  feet  in 
the  southern  part  of  its  range.  A  full-page  illustration  of  this  plant 
will  be  found  in  Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  Montana  (39)  where  it 
is  listed  among  plants  suspected  by  stockmen  of  poisoning  feiock. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  any  species  of  this  genus  is  poisonous, 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  69 

and  it  seems  likely  that  stockmen  mistook  it,  because  of  the  in- 
florescence, for  some  umbellifer,  or  "poison  parsnip." 

Very  closely  related  to  yellow  eriogronum,  so  closely  in  fact  that 
some  botanists  consider  it  a  mere  variation  [Eriogonum  flaviim 
var.  piperi  (Greene)  M.  E.  Jones] — is  Piper  eriogonum  (E.  piperi 
Greene),  named  for  the  distinguished  American  botanist  and 
ag-ronomist  Charles  Vancouver  Piper  (1867-1926).  Its  type  lo- 
cality is  in  the  Blue  Mountains  of  northwestern  Oregon  where  it 
has  become  conspicuously  abundant  on  some  badly  depleted  ranges. 
It  occurs  on  high  open  sunny  sites  from  Washington  and  Oregon 
to  western  Montana  and  northwestern  Wyoming.  Its  chief  differ- 
ences from  typical  E.  flavum  are  in  a  more  matted  growth  and 
more  greenish  and  larger  flowers  which  are  attenuated  below  into 
a  slender  tubular  base. 

James  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  jamesii  Benth.),  known  locally  as 
antelope  sage,  ground  chaparral,  and  redroot,  a  somewhat  trailing 
perennial  from  a  woody  base,  4  to  12  inches  high,  occurs  on  plains 
and  foothills  from  western  and  northern  Texas  to  western  Kansas, 
Colorado,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico.  The  leaves  are  thick- 
ish,  elliptical  or  spatula  shaped,  green  above,  the  lower  surfaces 
(like  the  stems)  densely  gray-  or  white-woolly.  The  flowers  are 
whitish  or  cream  color,  with  a  narrowed  stipelike  base,  arranged 
in  involucres  which,  in  turn,  are  in  irregularly  branching  cymes. 
The  plant  is  named  for  Dr.  Edwin  James  (1797-1861),  surgeon- 
naturalist  with  the  S.  H.  Long  expedition  of  1819-20  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  after  whom  the  Rocky  Mountain  shrub  genus 
Edwinia  (syn.  Jamesia  Torr.  &  Gray,  not  Raf.)  is  named.  Almost 
negligible  as  a  forage  plant. 

Barestem  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  nudum  Dougl.)  (fig.  15), 
sometimes  called  tibinagua,  grows  scatteringly  through  dry  hills, 
valley  flats,  and  mountain  slopes  from  Washington  to  California 
and  Nevada.  Davis  does  not  include  it  in  his  Flora  of  Idaho  (50) 
but  a  peculiar  form,  tentatively  referred  to  this  species,  has  been 
collected  on  the  old  Weiser  (now  Payette)  National  Forest,  west 
central  Idaho.  The  species  is  variable  and  numerous  varieties  have 
been  proposed.  The  smooth  and  rather  slender  stems  grow  up  to 
about  3  feet  tall,  the  basal  leaves  arising  from  a  short  woody  crown  ; 
the  leaves,  slender  stalked,  are  densely  short-white-woolly  beneath 
but  soon  become  hairless  or  nearly  so  on  the  upper  surface.  The 
flowers  are  usually  white  but  often  tinged  with  rose  (or  yellowish 
in  some  varieties),  and  are  clustered  on  a  repeatedly  two-  or  three- 
forked  inflorescence.  The  succulent  stems  are  palatable  when 
young,  but  later  in  the  season  livestock  rarely  display  interest  in 
the  plant  except  perhaps  to  nibble  at  the  flowers. 

Cushion  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  ovalifolium  Nutt.),  sometimes 
called  ovalleaf  eriogonum  or  silverplant,  ranges  from  the  Kootenay 
region  of  southeast  British  Columbia  and  Alberta  southward  to 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  California,  especially  on  exposed,  rather 
rocky  sites  on  plains  and  slopes  from  the  sagebrush  to  the  lodge- 
pole  pine  and  spruce  belts.  The  flowers  typically  vary  in  color  from 
yellowish  with  green  or  pink  veins  to  bright  yellow  turning  pur- 


70       AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-305158 

Figure  15. — Barestem  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  nudum  DougL)  ;  redroot  erio- 
gonum  (E.  racemosum  Nutt.);  and  sulfur  eriogonum  {E.  iimbellatum 
Torr.). 


plish  in  age ;  however,  some  forms  have  whitish,  pink,  or  wine-red 
flowers  and  these  color  and  other  differences  have  been  considered 
by  some  botanists  as  deserving-  varietal  or  even  specific  rank.  The 
low  cushion  of  small,  crowded,  rounded,  almost  felty  leaves  from 
the  short,  closely  branched,  woody  caudex,  and  the  numerous, 
rather  short  and  slender  scapelike  flower  stalks  with  their  single, 
headlike  flower  clusters,  constitute  the  characteristic  growth  habit 
of  the  species.    Although  cushion  eriogonum  is  cropped  to  some 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS  71 

extent  by  sheep  and  goats  as  fairly  g-ood  winter  forage,  and  on  some 
exposed  sites  is  a  valuable  ground  cover,  the  stand  is  often  very 
sparse. 

Scragglytop  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  proliferum  Torr.  &  Gray) 

occurs  on  river  flats  and  also  dry  plains  and  slopes  from  the  sage- 
brush type,  through  the  pinyon-juniper  belt,  up  to  ponderosa  pine 
forest  (occasionally  higher),  from  eastern  Washington  and  Idaho 
south  to  Nevada  and  northeastern  California.  The  woolly  leafless 
stems,  6  to  12  inches  high,  arise  from  a  tufted  woody  crown ;  the 
small,  oval  to  nearly  round  leaf  blades  are  white-woolly  on  both 
faces.  The  flowers  are  white,  turning  purplish  in  late  summer  and 
fall,  without  a  stipelike  base,  there  being  several  heads  in  an  in- 
volucre, the  central  head  sessile,  arranged  in  a  very  irregular  cyme, 
some  of  whose  branches  are  much  longer  than  others.  Of  negli- 
gible or  slight  importance  as  forage. 

Redroot  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  racemosum  Nutt.)  (fig.  15) 
grows  in  canyons  and  on  dry  plains  and  hills  from  Colorado, 
through  Utah  and  Nevada,  to  southeastern  California,  and,  through 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  to  western  Texas.  It  has  white-woolly 
stems  12  to  30  inches  or  so  high ;  long-stalked  leaves,  densely  white- 
woolly  beneath,  abruptly  narrowed  or  somewhat  heart  shaped  at 
the  base,  and  crowded  on  the  short  branches  of  the  woody  crown 
of  a  thick  reddish  taproot.  The  pink  or  white  flowers,  without  a 
stipelike  base,  are  arranged  in  narrow  racemelike  cymes  or  these 
again  with  racemelike  branches  separating  in  pairs  at  an  angle  of 
about  35°  to  45°.  Hardly  important  as  forage  for  domestic  live- 
stock but  deer  on  the  Kaibab  National  Forest  (northern  Arizona) 
are  reported  to  eat  the  stalks. 

Sulfur  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  umbellatum  Torr.)  is  the  typical 
representative  of  the  section  of  this  genus  which  perhaps  forms  the 
commonest  and  most  abundant  group  within  the  genus  (fig.  15). 
It  occurs  in  open  dry  sites  in  valleys  and  on  mountain  slopes  up  to 
subalpine  elevations,  from  southern  British  Columbia,  through 
Washington  and  Oregon,  to  California,  and  eastward  to  Colorado, 
Wyoming,  and  Montana.  Like  all  members  of  the  Umbellatae  sec- 
tion it  is  a  perennial  herb  from  a  tufted,  more  or  less  woody  crown 
and  root,  with  leaves  basal  or  clustered  at  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
and  hairless  flowers  with  a  stalked  (stipelike)  and  jointed  base 
and  arranged  in  simple  or  compound  parsniplike  clusters  (umbels) 
usually  subtended  by  a  whorl  of  leaf  like  bracts.  As  a  rule  the  plant 
has  little  forage  value  except  for  the  fact  that  sheep  pick  off  the 
bright  yellow,  or  sulfur-colored  flowers,  which  appear  from  June 
to  August.  The  leaves  are  densely  white-woolly  beneath.  Pammel 
(151,  V-  -^10),  in  referring  to  the  local  name  of  "silverplant"  given 
to  this  species,  mentions  the  oldtime  belief  that  this  plant  is  an 
indicator  of  the  presence  of  silver  and  gold. 

At  least  five  other  species  of  the  Umbellatae  section  are  suffi- 
ciently common  to  justify  mention.  As  a  rule  they  are  not  likely 
to  be  grazed  as  long  as  more  palatable  plants  are  present ;  however, 
livestock,  especially  sheep,  sometimes  evince  a  fondness  for  their 
flower  and  fruit  heads.  Three  of  these  species  have  leaves  densely 


72   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

white-woolly  beneath  and  cream-colored  flowers  turning  purplish 
or  reddish  with  age : 

1.  Northern  eriogonuin  (Eriogonum  compositum  Dougl.)?  rang- 
ing in  rather  dry  often  rocky  sites  from  Washington  and  Idaho  to 
northern  California;  the  oblong-ovate  leaves  are  heart  shaped  at 
base,  the  large  flowering  umbels  compound. 

2.  Wyeth  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  heracleoides  Nutt.)  (fig.  16), 
originally  collected  by  Nathaniel  J.  Wyeth  (1802-56),  the  Boston 
fur  trader  and  explorer  whom  the  naturalist  Thomas  Nuttall 
accompanied  on  one  of  his  western  expeditions.  It  is  sometimes 
called  "Indian-tobacco,"  has  a  wide  range  from  British  Columbia 
to  Montana,  Wyoming,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  California  (Warner 
Mountains),  a  woody  base,  the  pubescence  sometimes  grayish  or 
tawny,  and  at  least  one  whorl  of  leaves  on  the  stems. 

3.  Subalpine  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  subalpinum  Greene)  oc- 
curs on  dry  mountain  slopes  almost  to  timberline,  from  British 
Columbia  and  Alberta  south  to  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Nevada.  The 
leafless  stems  are  4  to  12  inches  high. 

Two  of  the  species  have  rich  yellow  flowers: 

4.  Greene  eriogonum  (Eriogonum  neglectum  Greene),  in  Wy- 
oming, Colorado,  Utah,  and  Nevada;  it  has  green,  at  most  only 
moderately  hairy  herbage,  and  simple  umbels. 

5.  Longray  eriogonum  {^Eriogonum  stellatum  Benth.,  syn.  E. 
umbellatum  var.  stellatnm  (Benth.)  M.  E.  Jones],  from  Wash- 
ington and  Idaho  to  Colorado,  Utah,  and  California,  with  a  woody 
base,  leaves  densely  white-woolly  beneath,  and  compound  umbels. 

Knotweed  (Polygonum) 

The  generic  name  Polygonum,  derived  from  Greek  polii^  (many) 
-j-  gonu  (knee),  referring  to  the  swollen  joints  characteristic  of 
many  species,  is  visualized  differently  by  various  botanists.  The 
more  conservative  treatment  has  been  rather  generally  followed  in 
the  more  recent  manuals  and  that,  for  convenience,  is  adopted  here. 
The  following  subgenera  or  sections  (treated  as  distinct  genera  by 
some  botanists)  are  kept  under  Polygonum:  Fleeceflower  (Acono- 
gonum),  cornbind  (Bilderdykia,  syn.  Tiniaria),  bistort  (Bistorta), 
and  ladysthumb  or  smartweed  (Persicaria).  Under  this  treat- 
ment Polygonum  consists,  so  far  as  the  11  Far  Western  States  are 
concerned,  of  about  60  species,  viz :  Aconogonum,  3  species ;  Bilder- 
dykia, 2  species;  Bistorta,  3  species;  Persicaria,  17  species;  and 
Polygonum  proper,  35  species. 

These  Polygonum  segregates — all  are  annual  or  perennial  herbs, 
though  a  few  are  somewhat  woody  at  base — may  roughly  be  dis- 
tinguished as  follows : 

Plants  vinelike  and  twining.  Flowers  in  axillary  clusters,  with  5 
calyx  parts  and  8  stamens;  achenes  (dry  seedlike  fruits)  3 
angled,  brown  or  black,  granular  or  smooth  and  shining 

Bilderdykia. 

Plants  not  vinelike  and  twining. 

Leaf  blades  jointed  at  base;  sheathing  stipules  (ocreae)  2  lobed. 


NOTES  ON   WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS 


73 


F-77414 

Figure  16. — Wyeth  eriogonum  {Eriogonum  heracleoides  Nutt.).  Note  whorl  of 
leaves  in  the  middle  of  the  detached  upper  half  of  stem,  at  left. 


74   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

papery,  becoming  lacerate,  or  torn  at  apex ;  calyx  lobes  5  or  6 ; 
stamens  3-8,  included,  at  least  the  inner  stamen  stalks  (fila- 
ments) dilated;  SLchenesS  angled     .     Polygonum  (restricted). 
Leaf  blades  not  jointed  at  base;  ocreae  not  2  lobed  and  lacerate 
(sometimes  bristle-fringed  in  Persicaria) ;  stamen  stalks 
(filaments)  slender,  not  dilated. 
Sheathing  stipules  (oci^eae)  funnel  shaped,  oblique,  more  or 
less  open  on  side  facing  leaf.  Stems  branched,  rather 
coarse;  all  leaves  on  stems,  lanceolate  to  ovate,  often 
crisped  and  fringed ;  achenes  3  angled.  Plants  up  to  6  feet 
high,  sometimes  a  little  undershrubby  .     .     Aconogonum. 
Sheathing  stipules  (ocreae)   cylindrical,  not  funnel  shaped. 
Stem  base  and  rootstock  thickened,  woody,  twisted  and 
often  cormlike;  ocreae  obliquely  cut  at  top,  more  or  less 
open  on  side  facing  leaf ;  leaves  mainly  basal ;  flowers  in  a 
dense  terminal  spikelike  raceme,  5  parted,  white,  pink 
or  rose,  stamens  exserted;  achenes  3  angled  (rarely  lens 

shaped) Bistorta. 

Stem  base  and  rootstock  neither  thick  woody  nor  cormlike ; 
roots  fibrous,  slender  stolons  or  rootstocks  often  present. 
Ocreae  squared  at  tip  (truncate) ;  flowers  in  one  or  more 
dense  or  loose  spikelike,  erect  or  drooping  racemes,  white, 
green,  pink  or  red,  peppery  tasting  in  the  "smartweeds" 
and  bland  in  the  "ladysthumbs" ;  achenes  usually  lens 
shaped  (occasionally,  when  styles  are  3,  3  angled) 

Persicaria. 
This  representative  group,  as  here  constituted,  of  the  buck- 
wheat family  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  West  and  occurs 
in  diverse  habitats,  ranging  from  extremely  dry  to  (especially  in 
Persicaria)  very  wet  or  marshy  sites.  As  a  class,  these  plants 
abound  on  poor  soils,  or  on  areas  where  such  disturbing  influences 
as  overgrazing  and  trampling  have  depleted  the  perennial  plant 
cover.  On  the  range  they  generally  grow  in  greatest  abundance  in 
the  vicinity  of  depleted  bedgrounds,  saltgrounds,  and  other  severely 
abused  sites.  Some  species  are  common  weeds  in  cultivated  ground ; 
others  appear  along  roadsides.  Although  generally  ranking  as 
undesirable  species,  knotweeds  often  mantle  denuded  areas  with  a 
fairly  dense  cover,  which  provides  some  soil  protection. 

The  majority  of  knotweeds  are  hairless,  much-branched,  erect, 
or  sprawling  herbs  (a  few  species  somewhat  undershrubby),  with 
basal  or  alternate,  chiefly  narrow  leaves,  with  more  or  less  tubular 
stipules  (ocreae),  which  sheath  the  stems  at  the  nodes.  The  small 
flowers  are  borne  in  clusters  in  the  leaf  axils  or  terminal  or  bunched 
near  the  branch  ends  in  spikes,  racemes,  or  panicles.  The  flowers 
lack  petals;  the  outer  flower  parts  (calyx)  consist  of  3  to  8  (often 
5)  nearly  separate,  petallike  sepals,  which  are  pink,  rose,  white,  or 
greenish  and  with  pale  or  brightly  colored  margins,  with  3  to  8 
stamens,  and  3  (usually  2  in  Persicaria)  styles.  The  small,  seedlike 
fruits  (achenes)  are  3-  (usually  2-  in  Persicaria)  angled,  brown  or 
black,  and  surrounded  by  the  persistent  calyx. 

These  species  are  mainly  low  in  palatability,  being  practically 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  75 

worthless  as  forage  for  cattle  and  horses,  and  only  fair  for  sheep 
and  goats;  occasionally,  however,  they  furnish  an  appreciable 
amount  of  sheep  forage.  Inferior  forage  quality  explains  why  they 
are  cropped  somewhat  lightly  even  on  heavily  grazed  ranges,  but 
as  they  produce  an  abundance  of  seed  these  plants  tend  to  increase 
and  replace  their  betters  which  have  succumbed  to  excessive  graz- 
ing. Hence,  a  superfluity  of  knotweed  on  a  range  generally  in- 
dicates destructive  depletion  from  very  severe  overgrazing.  The 
achenes  ("seeds")  are  an  important  source  of  food  for  birds  and 
rodents  (136). 

American  bistort  {Polygonum  bistortoides  Pursh,  syn.  Bistorta 
histortoides  (Pursh)  Small]  (fig.  17),  is  a  perennial  herb  about  10 
to  28  inches  high.  The  plant  has  a  woody  twisted  rootstock,  often 
with  a  swollen  cormlike  crown ;  an  unbranched  stem ;  long-stalked, 
lance-  or  linear-oblong,  mainly  basal  leaves;  and  white  to  rose- 
color  flowers  appearing  chiefly  in  July  and  August,  arranged  in  a 
dense  terminal  spikelike  raceme  about  14  to  21/2  inches  long,  with 
eight  protruding  stamens.  It  is  widely  distributed,  ranging  from 
Montana  to  British  Columbia  and  Alaska,  and  southward  to  Cali- 
fornia and  New  Mexico. 

It  grows  in  the  mountains  in  wet  meadows,  swamps,  around 
seeps,  in  moist  openings  in  the  timber  and  in  high,  moist  mountain 
parks.  It  is  most  typically  a  plant  of  subalpine  sites  (Hudsonian 
Zone)  but  it  also  occurs  in  meadows  at  lower  elevations,  extending 
down  into  the  ponderosa  pine  (Transition  Zone).  It  has  been  col- 
lected at  elevations  as  low  as  2,000  feet  in  Montana  and  as  high  as 
13,000  feet  in  Colorado.  In  many  localities  it  grows  only  as  scat- 
tered individuals  and  does  not  make  up  any  appreciable  part  of  the 
plant  cover  whereas  in  some  restricted  meadow  and  park  areas,  it 
occurs  in  great  abundance,  occasionally  being  one  of  the  dominant 
plants. 

American  bistort,  which  is  closely  related  and  similar  to  Euro- 
pean bistort  (Polygonum  bistorta  L.,  syn.  Bistorta  major  S.  F. 
Gray),  is  eaten  by  both  cattle  and  sheep  along  with  the  grasses  and 
weeds  found  in  its  habitat.  The  palatability  varies  in  different 
localities ;  in  some  places  it  is  regarded  as  being  worthless  as  forage 
while  in  others  it  is  eaten  readily,  especially  by  sheep.  On  the 
average,  this  plant  is  considered  to  be  low  to  fair  as  forage  for 
cattle  and  fair  to  fairly  good  for  sheep.  Deer  and  elk  eat  the  foliage 
and  stems  to  a  slight  extent. 

Viviparous  bistort  {Polygonum  viviparum  L.,  syn.  Bistorta  vivi- 
para  (L.)  S.  F.  Gray]  is  widely  distributed  in  alpine  or  subarctic- 
arctic  moist-wet  sites  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere;  in  North 
America,  it  is  found  from  Greenland  to  Alaska,  up  to  the  shores  of 
Bering  Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  south  to  the  Wallowa  Moun- 
tains of  northeastern  Oregon,  Idaho,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
New  Mexico  (the  plant  is  doubtfully  in  Arizona),  and  Colorado; 
farther  east,  the  species  occurs  in  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota, 
in  northern  Minnesota  and  Michigan,  and  in  New  Hampshire, 

The  plant  resembles  Polygonum  bistortoides  but  usually  is  some- 
what smaller  in  size,  the  basal  leaves  oblong  to  lance  shaped,  1  to  4 


76   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-290023 

Figure  17. — American  bistort   {Polygonum  bistortoides  Pursh,  syn.  Bistorta 
bistortoides  (Pursh)   Small]. 


inches  long;  stem  leaves  lance  shaped  to  linear;  the  rose-colored 
or  white  flowers  in  a  typically  slimmer  and  looser  spikelike  raceme 
(1  to  4  inches  long)  than  that  of  P.  bistortoides;  the  fruits 
(achenes)  granular  and  dull.  Presumably  as  a  result  of  the  short 
growing  season  the  plant  usually  develops  bulblets  rather  than 
fruits  in  the  inflorescence,  especially  in  the  lower  part.   The  plant 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  77 

has  a  very  limited  palatability  for  cattle  and  the  forage  value  is 
nil  to  poor.  In  the  Far  North  natives  are  fond  of  the  thick  root- 
stock  and  bulblets,  eating  them  as  "we  would  eat  nuts  and  raisins" 
(70). 

Douglas  knotweed  (Polygonum  douglasii  Greene)  (fig.  18)  is  an 
annual  with  very  slender,  erect  but  usually  much-branched  stems  8 
to  20  inches  tall  bearing  alternate,  linear  or  narrowly  lanceolate 
leaves  (the  uppermost  ones  reduced  to  small  bracts),  and  axillary 
clusters  of  small,  bell-shaped  flowers  whose  sepals  have  white  or 
rose-colored  margins.  Its  3-sided,  down-bent  fruits  are  black  and 
shiny  achenes.  Douglas  knotweed  ranges  from  Ontario,  Vermont, 
and  New  York  to  the  Yukon  and  British  Columbia,  and  South  to 
California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  Nebraska.  East  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  its  distribution  is  local  and  there  is  some  evi- 
dence that  it  is  naturalized  there.  The  plant  memorializes  its  dis- 
coverer, David  Douglas  (1799-1834),  the  famous  Scotch  botanical 
explorer  of  the  Northwest. 

Douglas  knotweed  occurs  at  practically  all  elevations  and  in 
limited  amounts  in  a  great  variety  of  sites  and  vegetal  types. 
It  abounds  on  rocky,  sandy,  or  impoverished  soils,  especially  in 
waste  ground  and  on  sites  where  trampling,  excessive  grazing,  or 
other  destructive  influences  have  largely  destroyed  the  natural, 
perennial  vegetation.  It  is  often,  therefore,  a  reliable  indicator  of 
overgrazing,  being  one  of  the  primary  species  in  the  ruderal-early- 
weed-stage  of  plant  succession  (1 77) . 

Due  largely  to  its  wide  range  and  diversity  of  habitats,  Douglas 
knotweed  has  a  long  period  of  flowering  and  maturing,  flowers 
generally  appearing  from  June  to  September.  Although  a  small 
plant,  it  often  produces  more  herbage  than  any  of  its  associates 
and,  when  abundant  and  during  its  green  and  succulent  stage,  may 
have  limited  importance.  The  herb,  however,  is  practically  worth- 
less as  forage  for  cattle  and  horses  and  is  only  fair  feed  for  sheep, 
except  on  severely  overgrazed  areas,  where  it  dominantly  abounds 
and  is  moderately  cropped  by  sheep  and  limitedly  by  cattle.  Under 
such  conditions  it  furnishes  an  amount  of  feed  equal  to  that  of 
all  the  other  annual  weeds  combined  (178).  Where  proper  range 
conditions  obtain,  the  species  would  seldom  occur  in  sufl^icient 
abundance  to  be  significant.  A  low-value  weedy  annual  such  as 
this,  with  shallow  root  system  and  strong  seed  habits,  may,  how- 
ever, eventually  be  efficient  in  accumulating  sufl[icient  organic 
matter  to  support  more  desirable  perennial  plants. 

Botanically  close  to  Douglas  knotweed  are  the  two  following 
annuals : 

1.  Mountain  knotweed  \_Polygonum  montanum  (Small)  Greene, 
syns.  P.  douglasii  var.  latifolium  (Engelm.)  Greene,  P.  douglasii 
var.  montanum  Small],  very  similar  to  P.  douglasii  but  with 
broader  (oblong  to  elliptic  or  oblong-lanceolate)  leaves,  the  upper 
bracts  more  leaflike,  and  probably  a  greater  tendency  to  have  the 
steins  flower-bearing  down  to  near  the  base.  In  high  mountains,  be- 


78   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  18.— Douglas  knotweed  {Polygonum  donglasii  Greene). 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  79 

tween  about  5,000  and  10,000  feet,  Alberta  to  Washington,  Cali- 
fornia, and  New  Mexico. 

2.  Saguache  knotweed  (Polygonum  sawatchense  Small),  origin- 
ally known  from  the  Saguache  Range  in  Colorado,  similar  to  the 
preceding  but  with  erect  fruits  and  much  reduced  upper  leaves.  In 
dry  meadows  and  on  open  slopes  especially  in  the  ponderosa  pine 
belt,  from  the  Dakotas  to  Washington,  California,  and  New  Mexi- 
co. The  forage  significance  of  these  two  species  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  Douglas  knotweed. 

Akin  to  the  above  are  the  two  following  prostrate  species,  with 
stems  leafy  to  the  tips  : 

1.  Prostrate  knotweed  (Polygonum  avicnlare  L.),  sometimes 
called  "doorweed"  and  "knotgrass."  A  native  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
now  naturalized  (possibly  native  in  some  areas)  almost  through- 
out the  North  American  continent  except  in  extreme  arctic  parts. 
A  very  common  weed  in  cultivated  grounds,  waste  places,  road- 
sides, overgrazed  areas,  and  the  like.  Occurs  iDetween  elevations  of 
4,000  and  8,000  feet  in  Colorado  (171).  As  a  rule  this  plant  is 
negligible  or  poor  as  forage  and  is  often  considered  an  indicator 
of  overgrazing.  However,  reports  are  sometimes  received  indicat- 
ing that  is  is  "much  relished  by  stock"  (158)  and  that  it  is  a  val- 
uable forage  high  in  crude  protein  (183). 

2.  Box  knotweed  (or  shore  knotweed)  [Polygonum  huxijorme 
Small,  syn.  P.  avicnlare  var.  biixiforme  (Small)  Robins.],  another 
matted  annual,  similar  to  prostrate  knotweed  but  a  little  stouter, 
with  blunter,  broader,  thicker,  more  bluish,  veinier  leaves,  more 
conspicious  sheaths,  and  with  granular  instead  of  wrinkled  and 
streaked  "seeds"  (achenes).  It  occurs  from  New  Brunswick  and 
Ontario  to  British  Columbia  and  Washington,  south  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  area  to  Nevada  and  New  Mexico,  and  east  to  Texas, 
Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Virginia.  Perhaps  it  is  hardly  more  than 
a  race  of  prostrate  knotweed  and,  when  more  fully  worked  out,  it 
will  be  known  from  practically  every  State.  On  the  range,  it  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  an  "early-weed-stage"  plant. 

The  Persicaria  section  of  the  Polygonum  genus  is  represented  in 
the  Far  West  by  about  17  species,  many  of  them  aquatic  or  semi- 
aquatic.  The  species  that  have  peppery-tasting  herbage,  especially 
inflorescences,  are  known  as  smartweeds  or  by  such  names  as  "bite- 
tongue,"  "pepperplant,"  and  "water-pepper;"  those  of  blander 
taste  are  commonly  called  "ladysthumb."  One  Old  World  species, 
naturalized  in  this  country,  princesplume  ladysthumb  [Polygonum 
orientale  L.,  syn.  Persicaria  orientalis  (L.)  Spach]  is  commonly 
cultivated  as  an  ornamental ;  it  has  been  observed  to  be  grazed  by 
deer  in  the  Allegheny  Mountains.  The  smartweed  species  are 
normally  unpalatable  to  domestic  livestock. 

The  ladysthumbs,  while  unimportant  as  forage  plants,  occasion- 
ally have  some  minor  value.  The  four  range  species,  briefly  anno- 
tated below,  are  fairly  representative  of  this  group : 

1.  Water  ladysthumb  [Polygonum  amphibium  L.,  syn.  Persi- 
caria amphibia  (L.)  S.  F.  Gray],  known  also  as  redshanks,  tan- 
weed,  water  persicaria,  and  water  willowweed,  is  an  extremely 


80   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

variable  species ;  a  number  of  species  have  been  segregated  from  it, 
but  they  seem  to  run  into  each  other  hopelessly.  This  perennial 
floats  in  ponds  and  lakes  and  also  grows  erect  on  muddy  banks  and 
in  shallow  water ;  it  has  an  enormous  range — in  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  in  North  America  from  Quebec  to  Alaska  and  south  to  Cali- 
fornia, New  Mexico,  Kentucky,  and  New  Jersey. 

In  floating  forms  the  stems  may  attain  a  length  of  as  much  as 
20  feet.  The  leaves  are  mostly  of  an  elliptical  type,  lV->  to  4  inches 
long ;  the  flowers,  bright  rose  colored  with  5  exserted  stamens  and 
a  2-cleft  exserted  pistil,  are  arranged  in  a  dense,  usually  solitary, 
spikelike  raceme  about  1/2  to  1  inch  long.  The  plant  has  an  as- 
tringent but  not  peppery  taste  and  is  seldom  regarded  as  a  forage 
plant.  Schneider  (180)  reports  that  this  species  has  been  "used  in 
tanning  in  the  Western  States;  said  to  contain  18  per  centum  of 
tannin.   Used  as  a  substitute  for  true  sarsaparilla." 

2.  Of  the  very  closely  related  bigroot  laclysthumb  {Polygonum 
muhlenhergii  S.  Wats.,  syns.  Persicaria  miihlenbergii  (S.  Wats.) 
Small,  Pohigonum  emersum  Britt.],  a  less  strictly  aquatic,  purely 
American  species,  with  long  rootstocks,  more  tapered  leaves,  and 
longer  inflorescence.  Smith  (183)  reported  "this  is  well  regarded 
as  a  forage  plant  for  wet  meadows  and  marshy  places  *  *  *  Cattle 
are  very  fond  of  it."  This  statement  may  reflect  unusual  local 
conditions. 

3.  Glandular  smartweed  ^Polygonum  omissiim  Greene,  syn. 
Persicaria  omissa  (Greene)  Small]  is  an  annual,  1  to  2  feet  high, 
beset  with  copious  stalked  glands,  the  leaves  translucently  dotted, 
the  fruits  black  and  shining,  rounded-ovate  but  almost  flattened  on 
one  side.  It  occurs  in  wet  grounds,  sinks,  swamps,  dried-up  pond 
and  lake  beds  and  the  like,  from  the  plains  to  middle  elevations  in 
the  mountains,  from  western  Kansas  to  Colorado  and  New  Mexico. 
Ordinarily  it  is  negligible  as  forage. 

4.  Spotted  ladystliuinb  ^Polygonum  persicaria  L.,  syns.  Persi- 
caria maculosa  Rydb.,  P.  mitis  Gilib.,  P.  persicaria  (L.)  Small]  is 
an  annual,  native  to  Europe,  now  widely  naturalized  almost 
throughout  Canada  and  the  United  States.  It  has  narrow  leaves 
chiefly  with  a  conspicuous  dark  spot,  sheathing  stipules  (ocreae) 
often  short-fringed,  numerous  dense  inflorescence,  and  smooth 
black  shining  lens-shaped  fruits.  Occasionally  grazed  by  range 
sheep  in  summer  but  ordinarily  negligible  as  forage. 

Pokeweed  fleeceflower  {Polygonum  phytolaccae folium  Meissn., 
syn.  Aconogonum  phytolaccaefolium  (Meissn.)  Small]  (fig.  19), 
sometimes  called  "wild  buckwheat,"  ranges  from  California  (the 
type  locality)  north  to  British  Columbia  and  Alaska,  Idaho,  and 
extreme  western  Montana ;  also  in  eastern  and  northern  Asia.  It 
is  a  large,  stout,  bushy-branched,  rather  succulent  herbaceous  per- 
ennial producing  somewhat  grooved  stems  IV2  to  6  feet  tall  from 
a  deep,  stout,  coarse,  fleshy,  sparsely  branched  root.  The  numerous 
oval  leaves  are  fleshy  to  thin,  somewhat  crisped  and  fringed  from 
1  to  nearly  7  inches  long.  The  greenish  or  whitish  panicles  are  both 
terminal  and  axillary,  the  small  greenish-white  flowers  5  parted. 
The  fruit  is  a  3-angled  achene. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


81 


Figure    19. — Pokeweed    fleeceflower    [Polygonum    phijtolaccae folium    Meissn. 
syn.  Aconogonum  phytolaccae folium   (Meissn.)    Small]. 


82       AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Its  typical  habitat  is  in  the  subalpine  to  alpine  zones  in  medium 
moist,  acid  soils.  Among-  the  first  high-range  plants  to  start 
growth,  it  flowers  from  July  to  September  and  matures  from 
August  to  October.  Sheep  consume  the  flower  clusters,  tender 
shoots,  and  leaves,  which  are  usually  produced  in  abundance  by 
July  15,  as  long  as  they  are  green  and  succulent.  The  fruits  are 
both  relished  and  nutritious.  Because  of  its  large  size  and  numer- 
ous leaves,  the  species  produces  an  unusually  large  amount  of  for- 
age per  plant  and  therefore  holds  an  important  place  on  many 
ranges. 

Sampson  (176)  states  that  this  plant  withstands  trampling  re- 
markably well,  and  is  promising  for  the  revegetation  of  depleted 
ranges  under  a  system  of  deferred  grazing,  having  reproduced 
successfully  in  many  places  where  natural  revegetation  experi- 
ments have  been  conducted. 

Closely  related  to  the  above  are  the  two  following  perennial 
herbs,  with  thickened  woody  roots,  decumbent  or  erect  stems,  in- 
florescences in  2-  to  4-flowered  axillary  clusters,  and  providing 
poor  to  fair  sheep  feed : 

1.  Davis  knotweed  {Polygonum  davisiae  Brewer,  syn.  Acono- 
gonum  davisiae  (Brewer)  Heller] ^^  occurs  on  rocky  slopes  of  high 
mountains  from  Oregon  to  California;  branching,  about  a  foot 
high,  with  stout  reddish  or  purplish  stems ;  leaves  numerous,  lance 
shaped  to  narrowly  oval,  1  to  2  inches  long. 

2.  Newberry  knotweed  (Polygonum  netvherryi  Small)  ^'*  ranges 
from  Washington  and  Oregon  to  Mt.  Shasta,  northern  California, 
typical  of  dry  rocky  pumice  or  lava  soil  at  alpine  or  subalpine  ele- 
vations. For  years  it  was  confused  with  the  preceding  species  but 
the  herbage  is  dull  green  and  more  or  less  pubescent-scurfy  (not 
bluish,  glabrous,  smooth  or  roughish  or  inconspicuously  pubescent 
as  in  P.  davisiae);  larger  and  broader,  ovate  and  more  distinctly 
petioled  leaves,  the  flowers  (calyx)  5  parted  to  near  the  base, 
instead  of  5  cleft  to  the  middle,  and  the  fruits  have  the  broader  end 
uppermost  instead  of  the  reverse. 

Merriam  (140)  mentioned  its  occurrence  on  Mt.  Shasta  as 
"Abundant  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  Hudsonian  Zone  up  to  a 
little  above  timberline,  where  its  big  green  leaves  are  very  con- 
spicuous on  the  pale  pumice  soil  and  among  the  broken  fragments 
of  gray  lava  rock.  About  the  middle  of  September  the  leaves  turn 
red — often  a  deep  handsome  red — and  begin  to  fall,  so  that  by  the 
end  of  the  month  the  plant  has  practically  disappeared.  Its  buck- 
wheatlike fruit  is  a  favorite  food  of  the  mice  inhabiting  the  higher 
slopes."  An  observer  on  the  Deschutes  National  Forest  (Oregon) 


i^Named  for  its  discoverer  and  first  collector,  Nancy  Jane  Davis  (1833- 
1921),  a  founder  and  for  60  years  principal  of  a  school  in  Birmingham,  Pa. 
Miss  Davis  made  important  plant  collections  in  California  in  1863,  1893,  and 
1915. 

i^The  plant's  name  commemorates  Dr.  John  Strong  Newberry  (1822-93), 
surgeon-naturalist  of  the  Lts.  Williamson,  Abbott,  and  Ives'  expeditions  to 
the  Far  West  (1855-58),  and  who  was  distinguished  as  a  botanist,  geologist, 
and  paleontologist. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  83 

reported  the  forage  value  of  the  species  as  "low;  eaten  to  a  very 
limited  extend  by  sheep." 

Dock  (Rtiniex) 

Docks  are  annual  or  perennial,  often  large  and  coarse  herbs, 
mostly  with  thickened  taproots.  The  alternate  leaves  have  sheath- 
ing stipules  and  are  mostly  elongated.  The  small,  greenish  or  red- 
dish flowers,  massed  in  small  whorls,  are  crowded  into  compound, 
often  elongated  inflorescences;  they  have  6  sepals  in  2  series,  the 
veiny  outer  3  unchanged  in  fruit  but  persistent  at  the  base  of  the 
3  inner  and  enlarging  ones  which  eventually  clothe  the  3-angled 
fruits  (achenes).  Male  and  female  flowers  usually  occur  on  sep- 
arate plants.  About  28  species  of  Rinnex  occur  in  the  western 
range  country.  The  genus  is  taxonomically  diflficult  and  mature 
fruits  are  sometimes  necessary  to  be  sure  of  the  species. 

Sheep  sorrel  (Ritmex  acetosella  L.),  naturalized  from  the  Old 
World,  is  now  established  in  Alaska  and  virtually  throughout 
Canada  and  the  United  States,  in  waste  places,  overgrazed  areas, 
old  fields,  cultivated  ground,  etc.,  often  as  a  troublesome  weed.  It 
is  perennial  from  slender  running  rootstocks,  the  stems  6  to  12 
inches  high,  the  long-stalked  leaves  eared  at  the  base.  The  inflores- 
cence is  branched  or  simple,  slender  and  spikelike,  often  reddish 
or  purplish.  The  foliage  is  highly  acid;  the  forage  value  varies 
from  worthless  to  fair,  the  palatability  is  usually  highest  in  early 
spring  and  for  sheep. 

Closely  related  to  sheep  sorrel,  and  of  about  equal  palatability, 
is  mountain  sorrel  (Rumex  paucifoliiis  Nutt.).  It  grows  in  moun- 
tain meadows  and  parks  from  British  Columbia  and  Alberta  to 
California,  Colorado,  and  Montana.  The  leaves  are  without  earlike 
basal  lobes. 

Curly  clock  (Rumex  crispus  L.),  native  to  Europe  and  Asia,  is 
naturalized  over  the  greater  part  of  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  smooth,  dark  green  herb,  12  to  40  inches  tall,  from  a  thick 
yellowish  taproot,  which  is  an  official  drug  containing  chrysophanic 
acid,  or  rumicin,  used  medicinally  as  a  purgative,  laxative,  stom- 
achic, and  tonic.  The  leaves,  up  to  12  inches  or  so  long,  are  oblong 
or  lanceolate,  with  wavy  (crisped)  margins;  they  are  often  locally 
used  as  a  potherb.  The  forage  value  varies  from  worthless  to  fair 
or  fairly  good  for  sheep  and  cattle. 

Canaigre  (Rumex  hymenosepalus  Torr.)  ranges  in  dry,  often 
sandy  sites  up  to  about  6,000  feet,  from  Wyoming  to  Utah,  Cali- 
fornia, Arizona,  New  Mexico,  western  Texas  and  Oklahoma,  and 
south  into  northern  Mexico.  It  is  a  smooth  erect  perennial  from  a 
cluster  of  tuberous  roots,  the  stems  up  to  40  inches  high,  the  rather 
fleshy  and  thick  leaves  of  an  elliptic  or  reverse  lance-shaped  type, 
about  2  to  8  inches  long.  The  3  inner  floral  parts  (sepals)  are  about 
1/2  inch  long  in  fruit,  heart  shaped  at  base  and  more  or  less  reddish. 
The  forage  value  is  mostly  negligible.  It  is  conspicuous  in  the 
Southwest  in  winter  and  early  spring,  commencing  to  grow  in  Jan- 
uary or  February  and  blooming  in  March.  Its  tubers  are  used 
locally  for  tanning  skins,  and  a  small  tanning  industry  that  used 


84   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

this  plant  was  once  established  at  Deming,  N.  Mex.  (2H).  Analyses 
of  the  dried  roots  have  shown  tannin  content  up  to  as  high  as 
45.8  percent  (95). 

Mexican  dock  (Rumex  mexicantis  Meissn.)  is  a  plant  of  wide 
range  occurring  from  Labrador  and  Newfoundland  to  Pennsyl- 
vania, Kentucky  and  Missouri,  west  to  British  Columbia,  Cali- 
fornia, Nevada,  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  Texas,  and  south  into 
Mexico.  It  is  a  coarse,  smooth,  pale-green,  short-lived  perennial 
herb  with  a  thickened,  woody  taproot  and  tufted,  simple  or 
branched  stems  from  1  to  3  feet  high,  bearing  lance-shaped,  un- 
toothed  alternate  leaves.  The  flowers  are  numerous,  greenish  col- 
ored, borne  on  short  stems  in  ascending,  almost  spikelike  clusters. 
Each  of  the  three  inner  tubercled  sepals  has  a  triangular-rounded 
wing  that  is  delicately  but  distinctively  veined. 

It  inhabits  dry  and  rocky  to  moist  and  rich  soils  throughout  a 
wide  range  of  elevations ;  it  is  alkali-tolerant  and  is  a  common  dock 
along  ditches  and  streams  and  in  cultivated  fields.  Flowers  appear 
from  May  to  September.  Livestock  sometimes  take  Mexican  dock 
to  a  moderate  degree  along  with  other  weeds  and  grasses.  Sheep 
as  a  rule  relish  it  more  than  cattle  and,  since  it  is  a  comparatively 
large  plant,  it  may  constitute  sufficient  of  the  stand  to  be  of  appre- 
ciable importance.  Sampson  (177)  places  the  plant  among  the 
secondary  species  of  the  second-weed-stage  of  plant  succession. 

Willow  clock  (Rumex  saUcifolius  Weinm.)  is  similar  to  Mexi- 
can dock  and  is  often  confused  with  it  in  the  books.  It  perhaps 
should  be  considered  as  confined  to  the  coastal  region  from  Van- 
couver Island  to  southern  California.  It  has  narrow,  somewhat 
willowlike  leaves. 

Western  dock  (Rumex  occidentalis  S.  Wats.)  is  a  large,  coarse 
perennial  herb  up  to  6  feet  high,  ranging  from  Labrador  and  Que- 
bec to  Alaska,  California  (as  far  south  as  San  Francisco  Bay), 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas;  also  in  Minnesota  and  Maine. 
The  leaves  are  of  a  lance-shaped  or  ovate-lance-shaped  type,  up  to 
16  inches  long,  heart  shaped  at  base.  The  flowers  and  fruit  are 
in  a  dense  panicle  up  to  2  feet  long;  the  stalks  (pedicels)  are  not 
jointed  to  the  fruits.  It  is  essentially  a  bog  or  wet-site  plant  and 
has  been  collected  as  high  as  11,000  feet  on  the  Medicine  Bow 
National  Forest,  Wyo.  Of  negligible  or  limited  value  as  forage, 
occasionally  nibbled  by  cattle  and  sheep. 

Veiny  dock  (Rumex  venosus  Pursh)  ranges,  mostly  in  sandy 
soils  and  between  elevations  of  about  4,000  and  8,000  feet,  from 
Washington  to  Manitoba  and  south  to  South  Dakota,  Kansas, 
Missouri,  Texas,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  northeastern  California.  The 
ovate  or  oblong,  fleshy  and  somewhat  bluish  leaves  are  up  to  5 
inches  long;  the  erect  stem  is  6  to  16  inches  high,  erect  or  some- 
what bent  at  base,  from  a  thick,  woody  taproot.  The  three  inner 
floral  parts  (sepals)  are  conspicuously  net  veined  and  the  fruiting 
wings  are  often  more  than  an  inch  wide.  It  is  sometimes  fair  sheep 
feed. 

Closely  related  to  the  true  docks  is  the  arctic  or  high-montane, 
rocky-site  alpine  mountainsorrel  [_Oxyria  digyna  (L.)  Hill,  syn.  0. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  85 

reniformis  Hook.]  but  differing  botanically  in  having  4  (instead  of 
6)  sepals;  2  (instead  of  3)  styles,  and  lens-shaped  (instead  of 
triangular)  fruits  (acheues)  with  2  broad  wings.  It  occurs  in 
Europe  and  Asia  and,  in  North  America,  from  Greenland  and  Lab- 
rador to  Alaska,  south  in  the  East  to  the  White  Mountains  of  New 
Hampshire  and,  in  the  West,  to  California  and  New  Mexico.  It  is 
perennial,  2  to  12  inches  high  from  a  woody  or  leathery  taproot, 
the  crown  often  branched.  The  leaves  are  rather  few,  basal  or  1 
or  2  on  the  stems,  rounded  kidney  shaped,  and  have  an  acid,  sorrel- 
like taste.  The  small,  reddish  or  greenish  flowers  are  in  narrow 
racemes  or  in  a  raceme-branched  panicle.  Not  important  as  a 
forage  plant  but  desirable  as  a  preventive  of  scurvy  in  the  Far 
North;  extensively  used  by  Lapps,  Eskimos,  and  other  arctic 
people  as  a  salad  plant  or  potherb ;  whence  the  local  name  "scurvy- 
grass." 

GOOSEFOOT  FAMILY  (GHENOPODIACEAE) 

Aside  from  the  more  or  less  woody  genera  pickleweed  (Allen- 
rolfea),  saltbush  (Atriplex),  winterfat  (Eiirotia),  hopsage 
(Gray la),  greasewood  (Sarcobatus),  and  zuckia  (Zuckia),  which 
with  the  exception  of  the  last  are  annotated  in  Important  Western 
Range  Plants  (5^)  and  the  Range  Plant  Handbook  (204.),  and  for 
three  limitedly  naturalized  herbs  apparently  of  no  appreciable 
range  forage  significance — common  beet  (Beta  vulgaris  L.),  flat- 
weed  Perubalm  [Roubieva  multifida  (L.)  Moq.],  and  the  garden 
spinach  (Spinacia  oleracea  L.) — the  western  range  flora  of  this 
family  consists  of  14  genera  and  about  70  species. 

Chenopodiaceae  are  annual  or  perennal  herbs  or  shrubs — a  few 
Old  World  species,  small  trees.  The  leaves  are  alternate  (except 
in  Nitrophila  and  Salicornia,  and  occasionally  in  Kochia  and  Sarco- 
batus),  sometimes  reduced  to  scales,  often  scurfy,  mealy,  or  fleshy. 
The  flowers  are  petalless,  small  and  homely,  often  greenish,  the 
persistent  calyx  2-  to  5-lobed  or  parted.  The  small  dry  indehiscent 
fruit  (sometimes  described  as  a  "nutlet,"  sometimes  as  a  "utricle") 
has  an  embryo  ring  shaped,  half  ring  shaped,  folded,  or  spiral.  As 
a  group,  the  family  is  notably  salt  and  alkali  tolerant. 

Gilbert  and  colleagues  (79)  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  under 
some  circumstances  certain  weeds  such  as  species  of  Chenopodium, 
Kochia,  and  Salsola,  may  cause  livestock  poisoning  or  losses  be- 
cause of  excessive  accumulation  of  potassium  nitrate  (KNOs),  a 
common  form  of  "saltp.eter."  This  is  particularly  likely  to  occur 
in  limy-shale  soils  and  shade;  the  nitrate  content  tends  to  de- 
crease with  plant  maturity. 

Aphanisma  (Aphanisma) 
Aphanisma  (Aphanisma  blitoides  Nutt.)  is  a  smooth  fleshy  an- 
nual, up  to  28  inches  tall,  with  small  stalkless  untoothed  leaves 
having  clasping  bases ;  small  mostly  3-lobed  flowers  with  1  stamen, 
and  lens-shaped  wrinkled  seeds.  It  occurs  on  or  near  the  sea 
from  southern  California  to  northern  Lower  California  and  on  the 
offshore  islands.   The  forage  value  is  questionable. 


36       AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Goosefoot  (Chenopodium) 

With  about  33  range  species,  Chenopodium  is  the  largest  range 
genus  in  this  family.  The  generic  name  Chenopodium  derives  from 
Greek  chen  (goose)  +  poiis,  podos  (foot),  alluding  to  the  shape  of 
the  leaves  of  the  type  species,  C.  album  L.  Goosefoots  are  usually 
white-mealy,  often  annual  herbs,  with  small  greenish  flowers 
mostly  clustered  in  spikelike  branches  of  panicles ;  calyx  mostly 
5  lobed,  later  more  or  less  enveloping  the  fruit  but  not  developing 
spines  or  wings;  stamens  mostly  5;  styles  mostly  2;  seed  lens 
shaped,  with  a  coiled  embryo. 

Good  King  Henry  (Chenopodium  bonus-henricns  L.),  a  Euro- 
pean perennial,  is  sometimes  grown  as  a  potherb;  Jerusalem-oak 
goosefoot,  or  "feather  geranium"  (C.  botrys  L.),  an  Old  World 
annual,  is  cultivated  chiefly  because  of  its  aromatic  properties ;  the 
tropical  American  wormseed  goosefoot,  or  "Mexican-tea  [C.  am- 
brosioides  L.,  including  the  doubtfully  distinct  drug  form,  var, 
anthelminticum  (L.)  A  Gray],  is  an  important  vermifuge.  Quinoa 
(C.  quinoa  Willd.)  "is  a  staple  good  of  millions  of  South  American 
natives"  (96),  the  highly  nutritious  seeds  being  used;  quinoa  is 
limitedly  grown  in  this  country  as  a  potherb. 

The  five  species  annotated  below  are  reasonably  representative 
of  the  genus  as  it  occurs  on  the  western  range : 

1.  Lambsquarters  goosefoot  (Chenopodium  album  L.)  (fig.  20), 
often  called  "pigweed"  and  "white  goosefoot,"  is  native  to  Europe 
and  Asia  but  is  now  naturalized  and  a  common  weed  practically 
throughout  the  United  States,  as  well  as  Canada  (except  the 
actually  arctic  parts)  and  has  become  established  in  Alaska.  It 
is  a  pale  annual  herb  with  a  usually  erect,  grooved,  much-branched 
stem,  up  to  9  feet  high,  bearing  numerous  ovate,  rhombic,  or  spear- 
shaped  leaves  which  are  rounded  or  wedgelike  at  base,  often 
sharply  or  wavy-toothed,  more  or  less  white-mealy  on  both  sides 
and  paler  below.  Small,  greenish  flowers  in  clustered  spikes  are 
produced  at  the  apex  of  the  stem  and  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The 
black  shiny  seeds  are  borne  horizontally,  the  outer  coat  (pericarp) 
of  the  fruit  closely  adherent  to  the  seed,  the  embryo  a  complete 
ring. 

The  plant  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence  at  lower  and  medium 
elevations,  in  fields,  along  roadsides  and  in  waste  places.  It  varies 
from  poor  to  good  sheep  feed  and,  as  a  rule,  is  grazed  to  some  ex- 
tent by  cattle.  Undoubtedly  it  has  some  value  to  livestock  generally 
throughout  its  range,  although  not  one  of  the  more  important 
forage  species.  The  young  plants  are,  in  many  places,  used  as  a 
potherb.  Blankenship  (27)  reports  that  some  Montana  Indians 
grind  the  seeds  into  flour  for  use  in  making  bread.  Sampson  (177) 
reports  it  as  one  of  the  six  most  typical  and  abundant  plants  in  the 
first  weed  stage  of  plant  succession  in  the  Wasatch  Mountains 
area  of  Utah. 

2.  Related  to  lambsquarters  goosefoot  but  smaller  and  darker  is 
dark  goosefoot  (Chenopodium  atrovirens  Rydb.),  which  occurs  on 
plains  and  foothill  slopes  from  Montana  and  Idaho  to  Nevada,  Utah, 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


87 


F-47S352 

Figure  20. — Lambsquarters  goosefoot  (Chenopodium  album  L.). 


and  Colorado.  It  has  been  attributed  also  to  eastern  Oregon,  Cali- 
fornia, and  New  Mexico  but  this  has  occasioned  controversy.  The 
plant  is  an  erect  annual,  20  inches  high  or  less,  simple  or  branched ; 
the  small  (under  1.2  inches)  oblong  to  ovate  leaves  are  rounded  to 
wedgelike  at  base ;  the  flowers  in  short  dense  spikes.  It  is  of  little 
value  for  sheep. 


88   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Fremont  goosefoot  (Cheno podium  fremontii  S.  Wats.)^  named 
for  its  discoverer,  "The  Pathfinder,"  Gen.  John  Charles  Fremont 
(1813-90),  ranges  from  North  Dakota  to  central  British  Colum- 
bia, Washington  and  Oregon  (east  of  the  Cascades),  California, 
northern  Mexico,  and  western  Texas.  It  is  an  annual,  more  green 
than  mealy,  up  to  30  inches  or  so  high,  with  ovate-lance-shaped  to 
triangular-hastate,  thin,  often,  long-pointed  leaves;  the  leafstalks 
are  at  least  half  as  long  as  the  blades.  The  shiny  black  seeds  are 
borne  horizontally,  the  outer  fruit  covering  (pericarp)  separating 
freely  from  the  seed.  The  plant  ranks  among  the  better  goosefoots 
in  point  of  palatability,  (Griffiths  (85)  and  Kearney  and  Peebles 
(109)  mention  that  it  is  often  abundant  and  produces  a  consider- 
able amount  of  feed  for  both  cattle  and  sheep  on  fall  range  in 
Arizona. 

4.  Raggedleaf  goosefoot  \_Cheno podium  incisum  Poir.,  syns. 
Teloxys  corniita  Torr.,  C.  cornutum  (Torr.)  Benth.  &  Hook.] 
ranges  from  southern  Colorado  and  eastern  Utah  to  Arizona,  New 
Mexico,  and  south  into  Mexico,  occupying  dry,  often  rocky  places, 
plains  and  foothills  up  to  the  woodland  and  lower  ponderosa  pine 
belt,  sometimes  common  in  good  soils ;  often  grows  thickly  under 
juniper  and  pinyon  trees  between  elevations  of  about  4,000  and 
7,500  feet.  The  plant  is  a  glandular,  sweet-scented,  erect,  branched, 
often  reddish  herb  8  to  20  inches  high.  The  pinnately  lobed  leaves 
are  %  to  nearly  2  inches  long,  the  lobes  lance  shaped  to  oblong  and 
untoothed.  The  flowers  are  very  minute  in  cymes  from  the  leaf 
axils ;  the  seeds  are  only  about  1/50  of  an  inch  broad,  bluntly  mar- 
gined, their  embryos  horseshoe  shaped. 

This  plant  has  been  observed  to  be  moderately  grazed  by  cattle 
and  horses  on  the  Santa  Fe  National  Forest  (New  Mexico) .  Steven- 
son (191)  states  that  the  Zuni  Indians  call  the  species  hatechi, 
meaning  "strong-odor-leaf,"  and,  after  steeping  it  in  water,  inhale 
the  vapor  as  a  headache  remedy.  Because  of  its  fall  coloration  the 
plant  is  sometimes  called  "bloodweed." 

5.  Slinileaf  goosefoot  (Chenopodium  leptophyllum  ISutt.)  is 
rather  closely  related  to  the  common  C.  album.  Its  natural  range 
is  dry  plains  and  foothills  from  Manitoba  and  Alberta  to  eastern 
Washington  and  south  to  California  and  western  Texas.  However, 
it  is  an  aggressive  species  and  has  become  naturalized  in  the  East- 
ern States  and  Europe.  It  has  thickish,  linear  to  narrowly  oblong 
leaves,  short  leafstalks  less  than  a  quarter  as  long  as  the  blades, 
and  the  outer  fruit  covering  (pericarp)  is  free  from  the  seed.  Negli- 
gible to  fair  as  a  sheep  and  cattle  weed. 

Closely  related  to  the  goosefoots,  and  by  some  botanists  generi- 
cally  merged  with  them,  are  the  three  range  species  of  blite 
(Blitum)  (fig.  21),  at  least  one  of  which  is  in  every  Western  State. 
They  are  smooth  fleshy  annuals  with  flowers  clustered  in  roundish 
heads  which  sometimes  form  an  interrupted  spike ;  the  flowers 
(petalless  calyces)  become  succulent  and  bright  red  in  fruit,  which 
has  suggested  one  of  the  common  names,  "strawberry  blite."  Sheep 
relish  blites  in  some  sections  which  they  scarcely  touch  them  in 
others,  and  cattle  often  consume  a  considerable  part  of  these  plants 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


89 


F-478353 

Figure  21. — Strawberry  blite,  or  blite 
goosefoot  [Blitum  capitatum  L.,  syn. 
Chenopodhim  capitatum  (L.)  Asch- 
ers.].  Fruiting  head  and  detached 
utricle,  or  "seed"  at  lower  right. 


90       AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

along  with  other  more  relished  species.  Due  to  scattered  distribu- 
tion and  only  slight  to  medium  palatability,  the  species  do  not  rank 
high  as  range  feed. 

Tickseetl,  or  bugseed  (Corispermum)  is  a  genus,  so  far  as  the 
western  range  is  concerned,  of  about  4  closely  related  species  or, 
according  to  some  botanists,  3  or  4  are  American  races,  forms  or 
varieties  of  the  Old  World  hyssopleaf  tickseed  (C  hyssopifolium 
L.)?  riow  rather  widely  naturalized  (or  perhaps  native)  in  many 
parts  of  this  country.  These  are  annual  herbs,  with  stalkless  un- 
toothed  leaves,  the  flowers  consisting  of  very  small  1-  to  3-lobed 
calyces  arranged  in  spikes,  the  stamens  1  to  5,  and  the  stigmas  2. 
The  fruit  is  a  small,  dry,  flattened,  rounded  to  elliptical  ntricle, 
with  a  sharp  or  narrow-winged  margin,  and  strikingly  suggestive 
of  a  tick  or  "bug" — whence  the  scientific  generic  name  (from 
Greek  Koph,  bedbug,  +  cnrepjxa,  seed). 

Shiny  tickseed  (Corispermum  nitidum  Kit.)  differs  little  from 
C.  hyssopifolium  except  in  its  much  smaller  shiny  fruits  or  "seeds." 
It  is  a  pale  green,  wiry,  bushy  annual,  widely  naturalized  in  this 
country  from  Europe  and  is  a  "tumbleweed."  It  is  reported  as  fair 
or  fairly  good  cattle  feed  on  the  Jornada  Experimental  Range  in 
southwestern  New  Mexico,  when  dried  in  the  fall  after  first  being 
matured  and  dampened  by  summer  rains. 

Tuinl>Ie  ringwing  ICycIoloma  atripUcifolium  (Spreng.)  Coult.] 
is,  perhaps  with  the  exception  of  Russian-thistle,  the  most  char- 
acteristic tumbleweed  of  the  West.  In  the  fall  the  plant  breaks  off 
at  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the  large,  ball-like,  aerial  part  is 
blown  about  by  the  wind,  often  being  carried  great  distances.  In 
this  manner  the  seeds  are  disseminated  over  wide  areas.  In  many 
places,  great  walls  of  the  plant  may  be  seen  where  wire  fences  or 
other  similar  obstructions  have  collected  many  individual  plants. 

Tumble  ringwing  is  the  only  member  of  its  genus,  a  bushy- 
branched,  pale  green,  annual  herb,  6  to  20  inches  high,  becoming 
dark  purple  with  age,  having  lance-shaped  or  oblong,  sharp- 
pointed,  wavy-toothed  leaves  and  numerous,  loosely  flowered  spikes, 
the  flowers  with  5  stamens,  and  a  5-lobed  calyx.  The  small  flat- 
tened-rounded  fruits  are  partially  covered  by  the  persistent  in- 
folded lobes  of  the  calyx  and  have  a  thin  rounded  wing  below 
(whence  the  generic  name,  from  Greek  ki'kAo?,  circle  +  Aoj/xa,  bor- 
der) which  assists  in  dissemination. 

The  species  range,  which  has  evidently  increased  in  recent  times, 
includes  the  area  from  Manitoba  to  Ontario,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  southern 
California.  It  is  very  common  in  fields,  along  roadsides  and  stream- 
banks,  on  sandhills,  and  in  waste  places.  So  far  as  known  the 
plant  is  of  no  value  whatever  as  forage,  it  is  generally  considered 
a  more  or  less  pestiferous  weed. 

Hyssopleaf  fivehook,  or  "smotherweed"  {Enchinopsilon  hyssopi- 
folium (Pall.)  Moq.,  syn.  Bassia  hyssopifoUa  (Pall.)  Kuntze] 
is  a  prostrate  or  erect  annual,  more  or  less  hairy  throughout,  with 
branching  stems  12  to  20  inches  long;  narrowly  linear-lance- 
shaped  leaves  up  to  l\->  inches  long;  small  flowers  consisting  of 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  91 

a  5-lobed  calyx,  each  lobe  bearing  a  hooked  spine  (enabling  the 
fruit  to  catch  on  clothing,  animal  hair  and  wool,  and  the  like), 
the  flowers  arranged  in  small  clusters  in  the  leaf  axils,  the  fruit 
enclosed  in  the  persistent  and  thickened  calyx,  with  a  small  hori- 
zontal, lens-shaped  seed. 

The  plant  is  adventive  from  Europe  and  the  Caspian  Sea  area 
and  apparently  extending  its  range  here.  It  is  now  well  established 
in  alkaline  soils  from  eastern  Washington  to  eastern  California 
and  east  into  Nevada  and  Arizona ;  it  is  also  established  in  places 
along  the  Atlantic  coast.  Some  botanists  prefer  to  retain  it  in  the 
genus  Bassia.  This  plant  is  ordinarily  regarded  as  a  mere  weed 
but  may  have  a  little  value  as  ground  cover.  As  a  range  forage 
plant  it  is  generally  considered  negligible ;  however,  more  data  are 
desired. 

Kennedy  (113)  reports  that  analyses  show  this  annual  herb  to 
be  higher  in  protein  than  alfalfa  and  far  higher  in  ash,  about  the 
same  in  ether  extract,  lower  in  fiber,  and  much  lower  in  nitrogen- 
free  extract.  He  adds  that  the  stems  get  hard  after  flowering  and 
that  it  must  be  grazed  early.  Kearney  and  Peebles  (109)  cite  L.  L. 
Stitt  to  the  effect  that  a  leaf  bug  (Lygiis  sp.),  which  causes  great 
damage  to  crop  plants,  has  this  plant  as  its  late-summer  host. 

An  Asiastic  plant  unknown  in  this  country  until  1934  is  Haloge- 
ton  glomeratus  (M.  Bieb.)  C.  A.  Mey.  (fig.  22),  which  might  ap- 
propriately be  called  Aral  barilla,  but  is  universally  referred  to  in 
this  country  by  the  Anglicized  generic  title  halogeton.  It  is  a  fleshy 
annual,  with  small,  somewhat  fingerlike  leaves  ending  in  a  sharp 
point ;  flowers  without  corolla,  5  sepals,  or  calyx  lobes ;  5  stamens, 
and  vertically  borne  seeds  in  a  small  flattened  snaillike  fruit 
(utricle)  subtended  by  the  persistent  and  now  winged  sepals. 

Gerald  M.  Kerr  of  the  Bureau  of  Land  Management,  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  writes  that  "Halogeton  produces  what  are 
commonly  called  black  seed  and  brown  seed.  The  black  type  con- 
sists of  a  dark  achene  which  is  loosely  held  and  in  most  cases  will 
ultimately  separate  from  the  bracts.  This  is  the  type  shown  in 
figure  22  and  labeled  as  having  a  persistent  calyx.  The  calyx  of 
flowers  producing  black  seed  are,  however,  quite  deciduous.  The 
brown  seed  or  fruit  is  composed  of  a  light  brown  achene  tightly 
enclosed  by  sepal  bracts  which  are  much  more  indurate  and  only 
slightly  winged,  if  at  all.  Commonly,  these  seed  types  occur  to- 
gether at  the  plant  nodes  with  a  black  seed  being  positioned  on 
each  side  of  a  brown  one." 

This  noxious  plant  is  now  widely  distributed  in  the  lower  range 
"desert"  areas  of  the  West  and  has  become  a  serious  sheep  poison- 
ing plant  in  the  Inter  mountain  West.  A  historical  sketch  and  bibli- 
ography will  be  found  in  (55).  Since  that  publication  (Nov.  1951), 
three  of  the  more  important  articles  on  halogeton  are  by  Bohmont 
(29),  Tisdale  and  Zappetini  (203),  and  by  Cook  and  Stoddart  (J^3). 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  none  of  the  11  known  congeners  of  Halogeton 
glomeratus  will  become  naturalized  in  this  country. 

Kochia  (Kochia)  is  a  genus  of  annual  or  perennial  herbs  or 
undershrubby  with  a  woody  root  and  crown.  The  alternate  or 


92   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  22. — Halogeton  {Halogeton  glomeratus)  :  A,  Plant  in  late  flower  and 
early  fruit,  "brown  seed"  fairly  mature,  "black  seed"  undeveloped;  B,  foli- 
age; C,  leaf;  D,  fruit  clusters;  E,  fruits  and  scales;  F,  individual  fruit  with 
persistent  calyx;  G,  scale  subtending  fi'uit. 


occasionally  opposite  leaves  are  narrow  and  untoothed  (eyitire)  ; 
the  flowers  are  stalkless,  single  or  clustered  in  the  axils  of  bracts 
and  consist  of  a  very  small  rounded  5-lobed  calyx,  the  lobes  in- 
curved and  producing  in  fruit  a  thin  horizontal  wing  on  the  basal 
part  of  each ;  the  5  stamens  are  protruded.    This  essentially  Old 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS  93 

World  genus  is  represented  in  the  western  range  area  by  about 
four  species,  often  occurring  in  alkaline  sites.  It  is  named  in  honor 
of  W.  D.  J.  Koch  (1771-1849),  a  German  botanist  who  was  di- 
rector of  the  Erlangen  Botanical  Garden. 

Greenmolly  kochia  (Kochia  americana  S.  Wats.),  also  known  as 
green  molly,  greenmolly  summercypress,  and  redsage,  is  an  under- 
shrubby  plant,  4  to  16  inches  high,  at  first  silky-pubescent,  (at  least 
often)  becoming  smooth  in  age.  It  ranges  from  Wyoming  to  north- 
ern New  Mexico  and  westward  to  California  and  Oregon.  Nelson 
(H5)  reports  that  this  plant  forms  part  of  the  spring  forage  in 
the  Red  Desert  of  Wyoming,  when  the  tender  annual  shoots  are 
eaten  by  livestock,  the  younger  twigs  being  cropped  to  some  extent 
during  the  winter  months  also.  In  dry  saline  areas  of  the  Great 
Basin  and  Southwest  the  plant  is  sometimes  fairly  important  win- 
ter sheep  feed  (22,  54,  85). 

Similar  in  forage  significance  to  Kochia  americayia  are  the  next 
two  (and  very  closely  related)  species : 

1.  California  kochia  [Kochia  Californica  S.  Wats.,  syn.  K.  ameri- 
cana var.  californica  (S.  Wats.)  M.  E.  Jones],  also  known  as  Cali- 
fornia summercypress  and  Mohave  redsage,  is  found  in  alkali 
desert  sites,  mostly  within  the  creosotebush  belt,  in  southern  Ne- 
vada and  adjacent  eastern  California,  particularly  the  Mohave 
Desert.  It  is  hardly  more  than  a  form  of  K.  americana,  differing 
in  having  the  stems  much-branched  (instead  of  mostly  simple)  and 
the  leaves  flat  (instead  of  nearly  cylindrical)  and  broader  (1  to  3 
mm.,  instead  of  about  1  mm.  wide) . 

2.  Gray  kochia  [Kochia  vestita  (S.  Wats.)  Rydb.,  syn.  K.  ameri- 
cana var.  vestita  S.  Wats.],  also  known  as  hairy  kochia,  gray  molly, 
and  gray  summercypress,  is  found  on  alkaline  flats  from  eastern 
Oregon  to  California  and  west  to  Colorado  and  Wyoming.  It  also 
is  hardly  more  than  a  form  of  K.  americana,  differing  chiefly  in 
being  permanently  pubescent  or  hairy. 

Summercypress,  or  belvedere  [Kochia  scoparia  (L.)  Schrad.], 
a  European  bushy  annual  up  to  5  feet  high,  is  often  grown  as  an 
ornamental  because  of  its  cypresslike  habit  and  because  the  com- 
mon cultivated  form  of  it  turns  crimson  or  purple  in  the  summer 
and  fall.  This  has  escaped  from  cultivation  and  is  widely  natu- 
ralized practically  throughout  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  waste 
and  arid  places.  Little  is  known  as  to  the  value  (if  any)  of  this 
plant  as  forage  but  it  probably  is  negligible  or  minor. 

Nuttall  monolepis  [Monolepis  nuttalliana  (SchuU.)  Greene]  is 
a  low,  somewhat  succulent,  more  or  less  spreading,  smooth  (or 
somewhat  mealy  when  young)  annual  about  4  to  8  inches  high  with 
alternate,  lance-shaped,  3-lobed  leaves  about  1/2  to  2  inches  long, 
commonly  with  a  large  tooth  on  each  side  about  the  middle  of  the 
blade.  The  small  often  reddish  flowers  are  clustered  in  the  leaf 
axils  and  are  characterized  by  being  reduced  to  1  scale  or  calyx 
lobe,  l(or  no)  stamen,  and  2  styles.  The  small  fruits  are  flattened, 
the  embryo  a  nearly  complete  ring.  It  occurs  in  moist  alkaline  or 
dry  soils  from  Minnesota  to  Manitoba,  Alberta,  British  Columbia 
and  Alaska  and  south  to  California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Texas, 


94   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  Missouri.  It  has  been  reported  also  from  Sonora,  Patagonia, 
and  Siberia. 

Occasionally,  as  in  cultivated  ground  where  it  may  be  an  objec- 
tionable weed,  this  plant  grows  in  sufficient  abundance  to  form  an 
almost  continuous  layer  or  mat.  Particularly  in  the  southern  part 
of  its  range,  especially  the  Southwest  where  it  is  called  "patota" 
by  Spanish-speaking  people,  it  is  good  sheep  forage.  Thornber 
(201)  reports  that,  where  abundant  in  valleys  and  extensive  mesa 
depressions,  it  is  invariably  closely  grazed.  Griffiths  (85)  con- 
sidered it  also  as  good  feed  for  cattle  in  Arizona.  Used  as  greens 
and  pinole  by  Arizona  Indians  (109). 

There  are  two  other  less  common  and  less  widely  distributed 
native  species  of  Monolepis.  The  generic  name  (from  Greek  /j.ovos, 
solitary,  +  Acttis,  scale)  refers  to  the  flower's  solitary  sepal.  The 
species  honors  Thomas  Nuttall  (1786-1859),  the  well-known  Eng- 
lish-American botanist,  ornothologist,  and  explorer. 

Niterwort  [ISitrophila  occidentalis  (Niitt.)  S.  Wats.]  is  distributed 
from  about  the  middle  of  eastern  Oregon  south  into  California  east 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  along  the  borders  of  western  Nevada, 
also  in  the  lower  Sacramento  Valley  and  common  in  the  San  Joa- 
quin Valley.  It  is  a  mostly  low,  smooth,  oppositely  branched  herb 
perennial  from  a  sort  of  taproot  or  running  rootstock  which  is 
according  to  Jepson  (105)  "about  the  size  of  a  pencil,  penetrating 
vertically  (and  often  maintaining  a  uniform  size)  to  a  depth  of  2 
feet  or  more." 

The  angled  and  jointed  stems,  usually  more  or  less  decumbent 
at  the  base  and  then  ascending,  bushy  branched,  are  3  to  8  or  oc- 
casionally as  much  as  16  inches  high.  Unusual  in  this  family,  the 
leaves  are  opposite,  somewhat  fleshy,  the  lowest  ones  broadly  ovate 
or  oblong,  up  to  14  inch  long,  somewhat  persistent  and  becoming 
dry  and  scalelike ;  upper  leaves  linear,  1/2  to  1  inch  long.  The  small 
flowers  are  usually  5  lobed,  in  the  axils  of  small  (usually  2)  bracts. 
The  small  fruits  are  rounded  and  brownish,  the  seeds  small,  black, 
and  shining. 

The  plant  occurs  in  moist,  often  black  alkaline  soils  and  near  hot 
springs,  sometimes  locally  abundant  and  often  associated  with  such 
alkali-tolerant  grasses  as  saltgrass  (Distichlis),  alkali  muhly  (Muh- 
lenbergia  asperifolia) ,  and  alkali  cordgrass  (Spartina  gracilis). 
This  plant  is  the  only  known  member  of  its  genus ;  it  has  a  marked 
salty  taste,  and  little  is  known  as  regards  its  forage  value  (if  any). 

Glasswort  (Salicornia)  is  a  genus  of  succulent,  usually  branched 
annuals  and  perennials,  with  opposite  leaves  reduced  to  small 
scales,  the  uppermost  crowded  into  a  terminal  spike ;  the  herbage 
often  turns  reddish  or  purplish.  The  small  flowers  are  in  threes, 
sunk  deeply  in  axillary  pits.  The  genus  is  represented  by  about 
seven  species  in  the  Far  Western  States,  and  its  members  rank 
among  the  most  salt-  and  alkali-tolerant  of  all  plants.  Rocky 
Mountain  glasswort  (S.  rubra  A.  Nels.)^  an  annual  (considered  by 
some  indistinguishable  from  the  Old  World  S.  eiiropaea  L.),  and 
the  perennial  Utah  glasswort  (S.  utahensis  Tidestr.)  are  typically 
the  nearest  plants  to  the  vegetationless  shores  of  the  Great  Salt 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  95 

Lake.  The  plants  have  a  very  strong  and  bitter  saline  taste  and 
are  usually  not  grazed.  Unfortunately  glassworts  are  often  called 
"samphire,"  a  name  which  should  be  reserved  for  the  Old  World 
fleshy  maritime  umbellifer  Crifhmiim  maritimum  L.,  whose  leaves 
are  used  as  pickles. 

Russian-thistle  (Salsola  kali  var.  tenuifolia  Tausch,  syn.  S.  pesti- 
fer  A.  Nels.)  (fig.  23),  one  of  the  numerous  annuals  known  as 
"tumbleweed,"  a  native  of  Eurasia,  was  a  serious  pest  in  the  Rus- 
sian wheat  fields  many  years  before  it  spread  to  the  United  States. 
It  was  probably  introduced  into  Bon  Homme  County,  S.  Dak.,  in 
1886  as  an  impurity  in  flaxseed  imported  from  Europe  (58).  The 
few  plants  produced  increased  slowly  and  almost  unnoticed  for 
several  years,  but  after  becoming  acclimated  spread  rapidly,  and 
now  this  weed  is  widely  distributed,  especially  in  more  arid  parts, 
over  the  United  States  and  Canada  (204)  • 

Russian-thistle  is  a  bushy-branched  annual  often  3  or  4  feet  high 
and  2  to  6  feet  broad  which  is,  at  first,  soft  and  succulent  but  be- 
comes rigid  with  maturity.  There  are  many  sessile,  slender,  thread- 
like, mostly  alternate  leaves  that  become  prickle  tipped.  Flowers 
are  small,  papery,  and  inconspicuous,  growing  singly  or  several 
together  in  the  axils  of  the  spiny  leaf  clusters,  each  flower  com- 
posed of  five  sepals  which,  when  in  fruit,  each  have  a  broad,  thin, 
veiny,  reddish,  horizontal  wing.  After  the  plant  flowers  the  leaves 
wither  and  fall  off  and  are  replaced  by  short,  stout  spines  in  clus- 
ters of  three ;  the  plant  then  increases  rapidly  in  size  and  sends  out 
hard  stiff  branches.  Often  the  leaves  and  outer  branches  become 
bright  red  in  late  summer  and  fall.  Later  still,  the  plant  breaks  off 
and  becomes  a  tumbleweed. 

Russian-thistle  grows  from  sea  level  up  to  8,500  feet,  doing  best 
on  high,  dry  land  if  not  overly  crowded  by  other  plants.  It  does  not 
ordinarily  occur  in  sloughs  or  lowlands,  and  makes  no  progress  on 
the  native  prairie,  except  where  the  sod  has  been  broken  by  culti- 
vation, overgrazing,  prairie-dog  holes,  etc.  This  plant  flourishes 
also  in  rich,  moist  soils,  but  does  not  commonly  occur  there  because 
of  competition  from  other  plants.  It  is  salt  resistant  and  hence 
grows  well,  though  not  exclusively,  on  alkali  soils.  It  often  forms 
pure  stands  on  cultivated  or  overgrazed  areas. 

On  early  spring  ranges  this  species  rates  as  fair  forage  for  all 
kinds  of  livestock.  However,  after  the  plant  matures  and  the 
sharp  spines  form,  it  is  worthless.  It  cannot  be  considered  as  a 
desirable  forage  plant  on  mountain  ranges  because  livestock  will 
not  eat  it  if  other  and  better  forage  is  obtainable.  On  winter  ranges 
it  is  often  used  by  livestock  after  softening  by  winter  storms.  Rus- 
sian-thistle is  quite  drought  resistant  and  is  extremely  useful  in 
the  western  prarie  States  during  drought  years.  In  many  of  the 
drought-stricken  areas,  this  plant  has  been  used  successfully  as 
emergency  feed  to  prevent  livestock  from  starving. 

If  cut  when  in  bloom,  before  the  sharp  spines  form,  Russian- 
thistle  makes  good  emergency  hay.  Even  where  cut  after  the  spines 
have  hardened,  it  may  be  chopped  up  and  fed  as  fodder  or  silage. 
Westover  (208)  states  that  Russian-thistle  is  eaten  readily  by  cattle 


96   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-478355 

Figure  23.— Russian-thistle  {Salsola  kali  var.  tenuifolia  Tausch,  syn.  S. 
pestifer  A.  Nels.).  Individual  flower  (at  top),  fruiting  calyx  and  utricle 
with  persistent  styles   (upper  right). 

in  silage  when  cut  nearly  mature,  mixed  with  half  alfalfa  one-third 
bloom,  the  silage  being  in  good  condition  when  opened  and  with 
a  pleasant  odor.  If  fed  alone,  especially  during  the  fall,  this  plant 
has  a  very  laxative  effect,  which  may  make  it  a  source  of  danger, 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  97 

particularly  to  cows  in  weak  condition.  This  can  be  overcome  by 
supplemental  feeding  with  grain  hay,  first-cutting  alfalfa,  corn 
fodder,  or  straw  (J^O,  60,  61). 

According  to  chemical  analyses  Russian-thistle  contains  more 
protein  and  carbohydrates  than  clover  and  as  much  or  more  ash 
or  mineral  salts  than  alfalfa  or  prairie  hay,  but  it  is  less  palatable 
and  digestible  than  alfalfa.  Its  calcium  and  phosphorus  content 
(2.3  and  0.22  percent,  respectively)  are  relatively  rather  high 
(206).  Feeding  tests  have  shown  that  Russian-thistle,  ground  into 
fodder,  was  93.9  percent  as  valuable  as  cane  fodder  for  fattening 
lambs.  Robbins  and  Boyack  (167)  report  that  this  weed  is  a  fa- 
vorite host  plant  upon  which  the  sugar  beet  webworm  lays  its 
egs,  the  worms  migrating  from  it  to  the  beets. 

An  impure  soda,  known  in  the  trade  as  "barilla,"  is  obtained 
from  burning  plants  of  Salsola  and  the  closely  related  genera  Sali- 
cornia  and  Chenopodium.  It  is  rather  extensively  imported  into 
this  country  from  Spain  and  other  Mediterranean  countries. 

The  variety  tenuifolia  differs  from  typical  Salsola  kali  L.  (syn.  S. 
tragus  L.),  a  maritime  species  of  Europe  and  western  Asia,  chiefly 
in  its  narrower  leaves  and  perhaps  a  greater  tendency  to  broader 
fruiting  calyces,  but  Fernald  (69)  adds  "apparently  showing  no 
constant  differences  from  those  of  the  typical  form." 

Seepweed  (Suaeda) 

Seepweeds,  often  called  sea-blite,  are  more  or  less  fleshy  annual 
or  perennial  herbs  or  undershrubs  or  shrubs  found  in  salt  marshes, 
dry  alkaline  lake  beds,  seashores,  and  other  alkaline  or  saline  sites. 
They  have  numerous  alternate  linear  or  cylindrical  (terete),  hut 
not  spiny  leaves.  The  flowers  are  sessile  in  the  axils  of  leaves  or 
bracts  and  consist  of  a  fleshy  5-parted  typically  ivingless  but  often 
keeled  or  crested  calyx ;  stigmas,  2  or  3,  stamens  5.  The  often  black 
and  shining  seeds  have  a  flat  spiral  embryo.  There  are  about  9 
western  range  species  of  Suaeda  of  which  4  are  more  or  less 
shrubby ;  for  brief  notes  on  the  woody  species  see  important  West- 
ern Browse  Plants  (5J^). 

Under  the  International  Code  of  Botanical  Nomenclature  (11-^) 
Suaeda  Forsk.  (1775)  is  conserved  as  against  Dondia  Adans. 
(1763).  Suaeda  is  a  Latinized  form  of  Arabic  suwayd,  referring 
to  an  Old  World  species  of  the  genus.  Kearney  and  Peebles  (109) 
mention  the  use  of  the  leaves  of  these  plants  by  Southwestern  In- 
dians for  greens  and  medicine  and  of  the  seeds  for  "pinole."  The 
following  are  reasonably  representative  of  the  range  species. 

Pursh  seepweed  \_Suaeda  depressa  (Pnrsh)  S.  Wats.,  syn.  Dondia 
depressa  (Pursh  Britt.],  also  known  as  Pursh's  sea-blite,  ranges 
from  southeastern  British  Columbia,  southern  Alberta,  Saskatche- 
wan, and  Manitoba,  the  Dakotas  and  western  Minnesota,  south  to 
western  Texas  and  coastal  southern  California,  thence  north  to 
eastern  Washington.  In  the  typical  form  it  is  a  prostrate  annual 
or  short-lived  perennial,  but  is  erect  or  nearly  so  in  the  var.  erecta 
S.  Wats.  [syn.  S.  erecta  (Heller)  A.  Nels.,  Dondia  erecta  (Heller) 
A.  Nels.]  and  up  to  3  feet  or  so  high.  Intermediate,  decumbent  or 


98   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

ascending  forms  occur.  The  leaves  are  broadest  at  the  base;  the 
calyx  lobes  have  horned  appendages;  the  usually  dense  spikes  may 
be  short  or  long.  In  salt  marshes  and  alkaline  plains  this  plant  may 
occur  in  almost  pure  stands  and  represent  a  distinct  vegetal  type. 

As  with  other  species  of  Suaeda,  reported  palatabilities  for  Pursh 
seepweed  vary  greatly.  It  has  been  observed  to  be  heavily  grazed 
at  times  and,  when  young,  to  be  eaten  by  horses.  Undoubtedly  the 
time  of  the  year,  association  and  availability  of  palatable  grasses 
and  other  plants,  and  salt  hunger  of  animals  are  among  the  factors 
that  govern  the  divergences  of  opinion  as  regards  the  forage  values 
of  seepweeds. 

Black  seepweed  [Suaeda  nigra  (Raf.)  J.  F.  Macbride,  syn.  Dondia 
nigra  (Raf.)  Standi.]  ranges  from  eastern  Oregon  and  Idaho, 
through  Nevada  and  Utah,  into  northern  Mexico.  It  is  an  annual 
or  rarely  perennial  with  slender,  erect,  ascending  or  spreading, 
rather  flexuous  stems  8  to  30  inches  high,  the  leaves  narroived  at 
base,  1/4  to  1  inch  long  but  reduced  and  bractlike  in  the  inflores- 
cence. The  palatability  of  black  seepweed  is  ordinarily  regarded 
as  low. 

Suaeda  diffusa  S.  Wats.  [syn.  Dondia  diffusa  (S.  Wats.)  Heller] 
is  probably  indistinguishable  from  S.  nigra.  This  spreading  form 
occurs  from  northeastern  California  and  southeastern  Oregon  to 
southern  Montana,  western  Nebraska,  western  Texas,  and  New 
Mexico. 

Poison  suckleya  [Suckleya  suckleyana  (Torr.)  Rydb.,  syns. 
Obione  suckleyana  Torr,,  S.  petiolaris  A.  Gray]^^  occurs  from  east- 
ern Montana  south  to  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  northern  New 
Mexico.  It  is  a  fleshy,  prostrate  or  decumbent-ascending  annual, 
the  herbage  often  somewhat  reddish  scurfy,  with  a  taproot  and 
branched  stems  4  to  16  inches  long.  The  rounded  to  rhombic-ovate, 
sharp-  and  wavy-toothed  leaves  are  %  to  11/4  inch  wide.  The  flowers 
are  produced  in  the  axils  of  leaves  and  bracts,  the  4-parted  male 
flowers  on  top.  The  fruiting  bracts  closely  invest  the  fruit,  are 
spear  shaped  with  crested  margins,  and  tip  two  toothed. 

The  plant  inhabits  sink  holes,  pond,  irrigation  ditch,  and  stream 
borders,  dry  lake  beds,  and  the  like.  While  sometimes  grazed  by 
cattle  and  sheep  with  apparent  impunity,  it  is  known  to  have 
caused  losses,  due  to  hydrocyanic  acid,  to  both  kinds  of  stock. 
The  hydrocyanic  acid  content  varies  considerably,  appearing  to  be 
greatest  in  dry  prairie  sections  and  in  soils  rich  in  nitrates.  Losses 
have  been  particularly  noted  around  noon  near  water  where  this 
plant  is  plentiful  and  among  nursing  cows  (193,  202). 

AMARANTH  FAMILY  (AMARANTHAGEAE) 

This  family  consists  of  annual  or  perennial  herbs  (a  few  exotic 
species  are  undershrubs  or  woody  vines),  with  simple  opposite  or 


i^The  genus  is  monotypic,  this  being  the  only  species  known.  It  is  named 
after  its  discoverer  and  first  collector.  Dr.  George  Suckley  (1830-69),  a 
United  States  Army  surgeon  of  early  Pacific  railroad  expeditions,  and  well 
known  as  a  naturalist  and  ornithologist. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  99 

alternate  leaves.  The  diminutive  flowers  consist  of  a  3-  to  5-  (oc- 
casionally 2-)  lobed  or  parted,  thin  and  dry  calyx,  with  the  same 
number  of  stamens  opposite  the  lobes,  or  sepals,  and  distinct  or 
united  below  into  a  tube;  the  flo\vers  are  mostly  aggregated  into 
axillary  or  terminal  spikes,  panicles,  racemes,  or  heads ;  stigmas,  2 
or  3.  The  fruit  is  a  small  1-seeded  nutlet  or  utricle,  the  lens-shaped 
seeds  with  a  usually  ringlike  embryo.  The  range  flora  of  this  family 
consists  of  9  genera  and  about  30  species.  They  are  mostly  homely, 
weedy  plants.  However,  the  family  includes  some  rather  common 
though  somewhat  coarse  ornamentals,  including  cockscomb  (Ce- 
losia  argentea  L.)  and  some  species  of  Amara7iihus,  Gomphrena, 
and  Iresine,  which  will  be  mentioned  under  those  genera. 

Hopiweed  (Acanthochiton  wrightii  Torr.)  is  a  smooth  annual 
Southwestern  herb,  ranging  from  western  Texas  to  Arizona  and 
south  into  Chihuahua ;  it  is  the  only  known  species  of  the  genus. 
The  branching  stems  are  green  and  white  striped.  The  small  al- 
ternate leaves  are  narrow  and  awn  tipped.  Male  and  female  flowers 
are  usually  borne  on  separte  plants ;  male  flowers  are  in  clus- 
ters crowded  into  bractless  spikes,  with  five  perianth  segments 
(sepals)  ;  the  female  flowers  have  no  floral  envelope,  or  perianth, 
and  are  largely  concealed  by  conspicuous  heart-shaped,  thin-mar- 
gined, spine-tipped  bracts,  giving  a  prickly  appearance. 

The  plant  is  often  abundant  in  dry  sandy  places  and  sometimes 
becomes  a  troublesome  weed  in  gardens.  On  the  Jornada  Experi- 
mental Range  in  southern  New  Mexico  the  plant  was  found  worth- 
less for  cattle.  However,  Kearney  and  Peebles  (109)  report  that, 
in  Arizona,  "while  young  the  plants  are  relished  by  livestock,"  It 
is  an  important  species  in  the  economy  of  the  Hopi  Indians.  Hough 
(100)  states  that  it  is  known  as  the  "ancient  Hopi  food,"  being 
gathered  and  strung  by  them  in  long  bunches,  which  hang  in  nearly 
every  house.  The  Hopi  recount  that  this  plant  has  warded  off 
famine  a  number  of  times,  springing  up  as  it  does  before  the  corn 
is  filled.  Whiting  (209)  reports  that  it  is  "cooked  as  greens  with 
meat,"  either  when  fresh  in  the  spring  or  later  and  dried. 

Waterhemp  (Acnida) 

This  is  a  genus  of  smooth  annuals,  with  the  sexes  distinct,  having 
often  elongated  spikes  or  panicles  of  small  greenish  or  yellowish 
flowers ;  the  male  flowers  have  a  5-lobed  calyx ;  the  female  flowers 
are  without  a  calyx.  The  fruit  is  a  thin-  or  thick-margined  1-seeded 
nutlet,  or  utricle.  To  some  people  these  plants  resemble 
amaranth;  others,  hemp  or  nettle.  The  genus  gets  its  scientific 
name  from  the  latter  viewpoint  as  it  is  from  the  Greek  meaning 
"not  nettle,"  having  no  stinging  hairs.  The  group  is  somewhat 
peculiar  in  this  family,  because  the  favored  habitat  of  most  species 
is  near  or  in  water  or  in  wet  sites.  There  are  two  range  species ; 
the  Forest  Service  has  no  report  of  either  being  grazed. 

Tall  waterhemp  (Acnida  altissima  Riddell)  ranges  from  Ontario 
to  Kentucky  and  west  to  Colorado  and  South  Dakota,  growing 
along  irrigation  ditches,  in  flood  plains,  swampy  places,  and  the 
like.  It  is  an  erect  branching  herb  up  to  6 1/2  feet  high,  with  lance- 


100  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

shaped  leaves  broadest  below  the  middle,  the  fruits  opening  irregu- 
larly, longer  than  the  subtending  bracts,  the  sepals  of  the  male 
flowers  sharp  tipped. 

Tamarisk  waterhemp  lAcnida  tamariscina  (Nutt.)  Wood]  occurs 
from  Indiana  to  South  Dakota,  New  Mexico,  and  Louisiana,  often 
in  waste  places  and  sandy  fields  but  preferring  moist  sites.  It 
grows  up  to  5  feet  high,  has  rhombic-oblong  or  oval  leaves  up  to  4 
inches  long  but  the  uppermost  ones  much  reduced,  the  female  spikes 
slender  and  elongated,  the  fruits  opening  in  a  ring  at  the  top,  the 
lobes  of  the  male  flowers  shorter  than  the  subtending  bracts,  long 
tapered  and  with  an  elongated  tip. 

Creeping  chaff  flower  {Alternanthera  repens  (L.)  Puntze,  syn. 
Achyranthes  repens  L.]  is  a  matted,  more  or  less  prostrate  peren- 
nial herb,  with  a  thick  woody  root,  widely  distributed  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres.  It  is 
thought  to  have  invaded  our  Southern  States  from  Mexico  and  is 
now  established  from  South  Carolina  to  Florida  and  west  to  south- 
ern California.  The  leaves  are  opposite,  oval  or  obovate  and  un- 
equal in  size.  The  flowers  are  in  white-bracted  short  spikes  from 
the  leaf  axils.  The  five  lobes  of  the  small  flowers  are  pubescent 
with  jointed  hairs  barbed  at  the  tip.  The  plant  is  sometimes  an 
aggressive  weed  in  cultivated  ground  and  is  not  known  to  have 
any  forage  value. 

Amaranth  (Amaranthus) 

The  type  genus  and  namesake  of  the  family,  often  called  "pig- 
weed" and  "hogweed"  because  relished  by  swine,  and  "redroot" 
because  of  the  root  color  of  many  species.  There  are  about  17 
western  range  species.  Because  they  are  aggressive,  weedy  plants, 
it  is  difficult  to  give  the  distribution  of  the  species  with  exactness ; 
the  range  of  many  is  undoubtedly  spreading.  They  are  coarse 
annual  herbs,  with  alternate  stalked,  untoothed  (but  sometimes 
wavy-margined)  leaves;  the  small  greenish  (occasionally  purplish 
or  reddish)  flowers  occur  in  small  compact  clusters  (glomerides), 
these  often  arranged  in  spikes  or  panicles  both  terminal  and  from 
the  leaf  axils. 

The  sexes  may  be  distinct  or  male  and  female  flowers  borne  on 
the  same  plant ;  the  flowers  consist  of  a  calyx  with  2  to  5  distinct 
lobes,  or  sepals,  the  stamens  with  distinct  stalks  (filaments)  and  of 
the  same  number  as  the  sepals.  The  fruit  (a  nutlet  or  ntricle)  may 
be  nonsplitting  (hidehiscent)  or  open  ringlike  (circumscissile)  at 
the  top,  discharging  the  single,  shiny  seed.  Strange  to  say,  in  view 
of  the  coarse  weedy  character  of  the  genus,  at  least  two  members 
are  cultivated  as  ornamentals:  love-lies-bleeding  (Amaranthus 
caudatiis  L.)  and  princess-feather  (A.  hyhridus  var.  hypochondria- 
ens  Robins.). 

Gilbert  and  colleagues  (79)  call  attention  to  the  fact  that,  under 
some  circumstances,  certain  weeds,  such  as  species  of  Amaranthus, 
may  cause  livestock  poisoning  or  losses  because  of  excessive  ac- 
cumulation of  potassium  nitrate  (KNOx),  a  common  form  of  "salt- 
peter." This  is  particularly  likely  to  occur  in  limey-shale  soils  and 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  101 

shade;  the  nitrate  content  tends  to  decrease  with  plant  maturity. 

Prostrate  amaranth  ( Amaranthus  graecizans  L.,  Syn.  A.  blifoides 
S.  Wats.)  is  a  prostrate,  rather  pale  and  relatively  smooth,  dif- 
fusely branched  plant  forming  circular  mats  in  cultivated  and 
waste  places,  the  stems  6  inches  to  3  feet  long.  The  spatula-shaped 
or  obovate  leaves  are  l^  to  1  inch  long,  narrowed  at  the  base  into 
slender  leafstalks.  The  4-  or  5-parted  flowers  are  massed  in  small 
axillary  clusters  shorter  than  the  leaves,  subtended  by  oblong  or 
lance-shaped  bracts  a  little  shorter  than  the  flowers.  The  nearly 
smooth  fruits  open  by  a  lid  ;  the  seeds  are  relatively  large  (1.6  mm. 
wide).  It  has  often  been  confused  with  the  related  A.  albus  L. 

Amara)it}n(s  graecizans  appears  to  be  indigenous  from  Washing- 
ton east  to  Utah  and  Colorado  and  south  into  New  Mexico,  Cali- 
fornia, and  Mexico,  but  is  now  found  in  nearly  every  State  and  in 
southern  Canada,  at  least  as  a  weed  in  cultivated  ground.  It  is  good 
hog  feed  and,  on  the  Jornada  Experimental  Range  (southwest  New 
Mexico),  has  been  reported  as  taken  well  by  cattle. 

Tunibleweed  amaranth  (Amaranthus  albus  L.)  resembles  A. 
graecizans,  and  in  some  books  they  are  treated  as  synonyms.  This 
species  differs  from  A.  graecizans  in  being  branched  but  erect,  6 
to  24  inches  high ;  it  has  much  smaller  seeds  and  much  longer  bracts 
in  the  inflorescence.  As  in  A.  graecizans,  the  flowers  are  in  small 
axillary  spikelike  panicles  shorter  than  the  leaves.  In  the  fall  it  is 
a  "tumbleweed,"  often  found  near  fence  rows  and  embankments 
along  with  Russian-thistle  and  tickseed  (Corispermum).  "Young 
plants  are  leafy  and  rather  succulent,  but  in  age  the  stems  become 
rigid,  yellowish,  and  covered  with  the  very  numerous  spiny  fruit- 
ing bracts  and  later,  scale-like  leaves  which  are  also  spiny-tipped" 
(214). 

In  cultivated  ground  Amaranthus  albus  may  be  a  troublesome 
weed.  It  is  a  frequent  invader  of  newly  burned  areas.  Like  A. 
graecizans,  it  is  sometimes  used  for  ensilage.  In  the  spring,  when 
succulent  and  tender,  it  may  be  taken  well  by  cattle ;  it  sometimes 
causes  bloating.  The  small  black  seeds  are  an  important  ingredient 
of  the  "pinole"  meal  used  by  Indians.  Old  settlers,  as  well  as  In- 
dians, occasionally  used  this  plant  in  the  spring  as  a  potherb. 

Pahner  amaranth  (Amaranthus  palmeri  S.  Wats.)?  often  called 
"carelessweed,"  "redroot,"  and,  by  Spanish-speaking  people, 
"bledo"  and  "quelito,"  occurs  from  western  Kansas  and  Colorado 
south,  through  southern  California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and 
western  Texas,  to  central  Mexico.  It  occupies  plains,  foothills, 
riverbanks,  and  valleys,  and  is  often  abundant  and  troublesome  in 
irrigated  land. 

This  species  is  an  erect,  branching,  rather  coarse  herb  2  to  4 
feet  high.  The  rhombic-lance-shaped  or  reverse  ovate  leaf  blades 
have  conspicuously  long  stalks  and  are  strongly  veined  beneath. 
Spikes  are  elongated  and  rather  thick ;  the  sexes  are  distinct ;  the 
lobes,  or  sepals  of  the  male  flowers  are  lance  shaped  and  spiny 
tipped ;  those  of  the  female  flowers  are  clawed  at  the  base,  oblong 
or  spatula  shaped,  distinct  or  nearly  so,  and  up  to  one-eighth  inch 


102  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

long- ;  the  bracts  subtending  the  flowers  are  awllike,  sharp  pointed 
and  longer  than  the  flowers. 

The  plant  germinates  after  the  summer  rains  and  is  killed  by 
the  first  frost ;  it  is  regarded  as  fair  to  good  summer  cattle  feed, 
though  sometimes  causing  bloating.  It  is  said  to  be  easily  crowded 
out  where  there  is  a  good  stand  of  native  grasses.  The  species  is 
named  for  its  discoverer,  Edward  Palmer  (1831-1911),  well-known 
naturalist,  explorer,  and  ethnobotanist. 

Brayulinea  [BrayuUnea  densa  (Humb.  &  Bonpl.)  Small]  extends 
from  northern  South  America  north,  through  Central  America 
and  Mexico,  to  the  southwestern  border  of  the  United  States  from 
western  Texas  to  southern  Arizona.  It  is  a  prostrate,  matted,  cot- 
tony perennial  from  a  thick,  deep,  woody  taproot;  the  opposite 
ovate  leaves  are  cottony-pubescent  beneath  and  unequal  in  size; 
the  small  5-parted  flowers  are  in  dense  cottony  clusters  from  the 
leaf  axils.  The  plant  appears  to  be  unpalatable  to  livestock  and  its 
marked  increase  on  the  range  may  be  an  indication  of  overgrazing. 
Dr.  John  K.  Small  (1869-1938)  named  the  genus  in  honor  of  W.  L. 
Bray  and  E.  B.  Uline,  monographers  of  the  North  American 
Amaranthaceae. 

Snakecotton  (Froelichia) 

Cotton-woolly  or  hairy,  erect  herbs,  with  opposite  narrow  sessile 
leaves;  inflorescence  in  spikes,  the  flowers  5-cleft,  the  segments 
(sepals)  united  below,  subtended  by  3  thin  bracts,  the  5  stamens 
united  into  a  tube.  The  g-enus  is  represented  in  the  western  range 
area  by  three  species  and  is  named  in  honor  of  Joseph  Aloys  Froe- 
lich  (1766-1841),  a  German  botanist.  The  plants  furnish  a  limited 
amount  of  forage  of  fair  to  good  palatability  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
They  are  sometimes  called  "cottonweed,"  a  name  better  restricted 
to  the  European  composite,  Diotis  candidissima  Desf. 

Arizona  snakecotton  (Froelichia  arizonica  Thornber)  is  a  peren- 
nial with  a  thick  woody  root,  often  somewhat  branched,  and  with 
thickish,  reverse  lance-shaped  leaves.  It  occurs  in  grass  types  from 
western  Texas  to  southern  Arizona  and  northern  Mexico. 

Florida  snakecotton  IFroclichia  floridana  (Nutt.)  Moq.],  a  South- 
eastern species  extending  as  far  north  as  Delaware,  and  which 
sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  6V2  feet,  is  represented  farther  west, 
in  the  Great  Plains  and  the  eastern  edge  of  the  western  range,  by 
the  variety  plains  snakecotton  [var.  campestris  (Small)  Fernald, 
syn.  F.  campestris  Small]  from  South  Dakota  to  Colorado,  western 
Texas,  and  New  Mexico.  The  variety  has  leaves  broadest  in  the 
middle  (instead  of  toward  the  base)  and  softer,  shorter  hairs  on 
the  inflorescence  stalks. 

Slender  snakecotton  {^Froelichia  gracilis  (Hook.)  Moq.]  grows 
in  sandy  soils  from  western  Texas  to  Arizona  and  northern  Mexico. 
It  is  a  slender,  rather  spindly  annual,  with  thin,  basal  or  near- 
basal,  lance-shaped  leaves,  and  fruits  with  two  opposite  lateral 
rows  of  toothlike  projections.  Adventive  along  railroad  tracks, 
the  plant  has  become  locally  established  in  the  Eastern  States. 


NOTES  ON   WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS  103 

Blake  (26)  reports  it  as  a  very  aggressive  weed  on  a  farm  in  Anne 
Arundel  County,  Md. 

Globe-Amaranth  (Gomphrena) 

Annual  or  perennial,  small  to  medium-sized,  leafy-stemmed  or 
bare-stemmed  (scapose)  herb.  Leaves  opposite  or  sometimes 
whorled ;  flowers  in  dense,  often  globular  heads  or  spikes,  conpicu- 
ously  enclosed  by  thin,  variously  colored  bracts.  The  small  flowers 
are  5  parted,  the  stamen  stalks  (filaments)  united  into  a  long  tube, 
the  5  lobes  of  which  are  notched  or  2-cleft  at  the  tip.  There  are 
three  native  range  species  and,  in  addition,  the  cultivated,  orna- 
mental common  glohe-amaranth  (G.  globosa  L.),  a  native  of  the 
tropics,  is  occasionally  naturalized.  Palatability  reports  on  these 
plants  are  somewhat  inconsistent  and  more  data  are  desired.  Kear- 
ney and  Peebles  (109)  report  that,  in  Arizona,  "the  plants  *  *  * 
grow  on  dry  plains  and  slopes,  usually  with  grasses  (and)  are  eaten 
freely  by  cattle  and  probably  other  livestock."  The  species  are 
sometimes  called  "ballclover"  and  "everlasting." 

Tufted  globe-amaranth  (Gomphrena  caespitosa  Torr.)  is  a  low 
tufted  perennial,  with  a  deep  thick  woody  taproot,  stems  up  to  6 
inches  high  with  broad  leaves  at  the  base  only ;  it  occurs  in  New 
Mexico,  Arizona,  Sonora,  and  Chihuahua. 

Shining  globe-amaranth  (Gomphrena  nitida  Rothrock)  is  taller 
than  G.  caespitosa,  has  leafy  stems,  the  leaves  of  an  elliptic  to 
ovate  type,  and  the  floral  head  usually  subtended  by  two  or  more 
leaves.  The  type  specimen  has  shiny  pearly-white  heads  but  these 
may  be  yellowish  or  pinkish.  Unlike  G.  caespitosa  and  G.  sonorae, 
the  inflorescence  bractlets  are  crested.  The  plant  ranges  from  west- 
ern Texas  to  southeastern  Arizona  and  northern  Mexico. 

Sonora  globe-amaranth  (Gomphrena  sonorae  Torr.),  native  to 
Sonora  and  Arizona,  is  an  annual  or  perennial,  with  leafy  stems 
and  narrow  leaves.  As  in  G.  nitida,  the  head  is  subtended  by  two 
or  more  leaves. 

Bloodleaf  (Iresine) 

This  is  a  largely  tropical  genus  of  herbs,  some  tropical  species 
being  shrubby.  The  leaves  are  opposite  and  stalked.  The  very 
small,  thin,  5-parted  flowers  are  crowded  into  spikes  that  are  ar- 
ranged in  panicles;  the  stamen  stalks  (filaments)  are  united  at 
the  base  into  a  sort  of  cup.  The  floral  calyces  in  this  genus  are 
beset  with  long  woolly  hairs  and,  from  this  fact,  the  British  bota- 
nist Patrick  Brown  (1720-90)  devised  the  generic  name  from  the 
Greek  word  eiresione,  meaning  a  wreath  of  olive  or  laurel  bound 
round  with  wool,  which  was  worn  by  Greek  boys  in  two  ancient 
festivals,  who  sang  a  song  called  by  the  same  name.  Two  South 
American  species,  Herbst  bloodleaf  (/.  herhstii  Hook,  f.)  and  Lin- 
den bloodleaf  (I.  lindenii  Van  Hoiitte)  are  much  used  as  bedding 
plants  in  landscape  gardening  because  of  their  brilliant  red  foliage. 

There  is  only  one  known  range  species  of  the  genus,  variable 
bloodleaf  (Iresine  heterophylla  Standi.),  which  ranges  from  west- 
ern Texas  to  southern  Arizona  and  south  into  central  Mexico.  It  is 


104  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

a  perennial  up  to  about  40  inches  high  from  a  slender  branching 
woody  rootstock ;  the  leaves  are  rather  broad  but  vary  greatly  in 
size  and  shape ;  the  yellowish  or  whitish  flowers  are  in  rather  loose 
terminal  panicles  of  spikes.  Kearney  and  Peebles  (109)  report  its 
occurrence  in  Arizona  between  elevations  of  3,500  and  4,500  feet, 
usually  in  woodland  or  shrubby  types.  Notes  on  the  palatability 
of  this  plant  are  lacking. 

Tidestromia  (Tidesfromia) 

This  is  a  genus  of  more  or  less  cottony  or  wooly,  annual  or  peren- 
nial herbs  or  undershrubs,  chiefly  inhabiting  dry  sandy  "desert" 
areas.  They  are  prostrate,  ascending  or  erect,  with  opposite  leaves 
and  bracted  clusters  (glomeruJes)  of  small,  sessile,  often  yellowish 
flowers  from  the  axils  of  a  cluster  of  small  leaves.  The  flowers 
consist  of  a  5-parted  calyx,  its  lobes  (sepals)  united  at  the  base; 
there  are  5  stamens,  their  stalks  (filaments)  united  below  and  often 
some  additional  undeveloped  and  sterile  stamens  (stamhwdia)  are 
present ;  the  stigmas  are  either  simple  or  2  lobed.  In  some  species 
the  flowers  are  sweet  scented — whence  the  name  "honeysweet." 

In  the  older  books  the  plants  are  often  listed  under  the  synonym- 
ous name  Cladothrix,  but  that  is  a  genus  of  lichens  and  its 
later  use  for  a  genus  of  flowering  plants  was  illegitimate.  There 
are  three  range  species.  The  genus  was  renamed  by  the  American 
botanist  Paul  C.  Standley  (1884-)  in  honor  of  Ivar  Tidestrom 
(1864-1956),  well  known  as  author  of  floras  of  Utah  and  Nevada 
and  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  The  genus  appears  to  have  very 
limited  forage  value  for  domestic  livestock  but  more  data  on  that 
subiect  are  needed. 

Woolly  tidestromia  ^Tidestromia  lanuginosa  (Nutt.)  Standi.,  syn. 
Cladothrix  lanuginosa  Nutt.],  ranging  from  Colorado,  Utah,  and 
Nevada  to  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas,  and  south  into  north- 
ern Mexico,  is  a  prostrate  matted  annual  that  has  extended  its 
range  northward  and  eastward  at  least  as  far  as  South  Dakota 
and  v/estern  Kansas.  The  leaves  are  of  an  ovate,  obovate  or  spa- 
tula-shaped type  and  are  tapered  at  the  base. 

The  forge  value  of  this  species  is  ordinarily  considered  worth- 
less or  low.  Park  (153)  speaks  highly  of  the  possibilities  of  this 
plant  for  ornamental  and  protective  planting  in  dry  sandy  soils 
of  Texas.  Kearney  and  Peebles  (100)  state  that  "the  whitish  mats 
of  this  plant  are  conspicuous  soon  after  the  summer  rains  on  the 
deserts  in  southern  Arizona  and  are  well  adapted  for  checking  the 
blowing  of  sandy  soils." 

Honeysweet  tidestromia  {^Tidestromia  oblongifolia  (S.  Wats.) 
Standi.,  syn.  Cladothrix  oblongifolia  S.  Wats.]  inhabits  dry  sandy 
"desert"  areas  from  southern  California  to  southern  Nevada  and 
Arizona.  It  is  a  perennial  from  a  woody  taproot  and  is  sometimes 
almost  an  undershrub ;  the  herbage  is  hoary  white  with  branched 
(stellate)  hairs ;  it  is  a  spreading-ascending  plant,  the  stems  8  to  24 
inches  long,  with  oblong  to  broadly  ovate  leaves  usually  longer  than 
their  stalks  (petioles) . 

Shrubby  tidestromia  [Tidestromia  suffruticosa  (Torr.)   Standi., 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS  105 

syn.  Cladothrix  suffruficosa  (Torr.)  Benth.  &  Hook.]  is  an  under- 
shrubby  plant  of  western  Texas,  possibly  southeastern  New  Mexi- 
co, and  northern  Mexico.  The  leaves  are  squared  or  rounded  at  the 
base.  Forage  notes  on  it  are  lacking. 

FOUR-O'CLOCK  FAMILY  (NYCTAGINACEAE, 
SYN.  ALLIONIACEAE) 

This  family,  chiefly  confined  to  warmer  climates,  consists  of 
annual  and  perennial  herbs  and  undershrubs  and,  in  the  tropics, 
also  of  woody  vines,  shrubs,  and  small  trees.  The  stems  often  have 
swollen  joints;  the  leaves  are  mostly  opposite.  The  flowers,  often 
showy,  are  subtended  by  bracts  or  these  may  be  united  into  a 
calyxlike  involucre.  The  perianth,  or  immediate  floral  envelope 
(and  usually  the  showy  part  of  the  flower)  suggests  a  true  corolla 
and  may  be  bell,  funnel,  or  salver  shaped,  4  or  5  toothed  or  lobed 
at  the  apex,  the  base  of  the  lower,  tubular  part  persistent,  harden- 
ing and  closely  investing  the  fruit.  The  dry  fruit  is  usually  ribbed, 
grooved  or  winged  and  envelops  a  free  achene,  or  "seed." 

To  this  family  belong  a  considerable  number  of  cultivated  orna- 
mentals, including  the  familiar  four-o'clock,  or  "marvel-of-Peru" 
(Mirabilis  jalapa  L.),  the  celebrated  bouganvillea  vines  of  the 
tropics,  and  certain  species  of  sandverbena  (Abronia).  The  latest 
monograph  of  our  species  of  this  family  is  by  Standley  (187)  in 
1918,  in  which  17  genera  and  101  species  are  listed  as  occurring 
in  the  western  part  of  this  country;  however,  majority  botanical 
opinion  probably  favors  reduction  of  4  of  these  genera  and  many 
of  the  species  to  synonymy. 

In  addition,  in  southern  Florida,  is  an  herbaceous  genus  of  this 
family  (Okenia)  and  2  genera  (Pisonia  and  Torrubia),  listed  in 
Little's  Check  List  (121),  with  6  species,  4  of  small  trees  and  2  of 
shrubs.  The  5  best-developed  range  genera  of  the  family  are : 
Abronia,  with  about  25  range  species;  Boerhaavia  and  Mirabilis, 
with  about  14  species  each,  and  Acleisanthes  and  Oxybaphus,  about 
7  species  each.  The  family  name  Nyctaginaceae  has  been  formally 
proposed  for  conservation. 

Sandverbena  (Abronia) 

This  is  the  best  developed  and  perhaps  most  widely  distributed 
of  the  western  genera  of  this  family.  The  species  are  perennial 
or  sometimes  annual,  usually  sticky-hairy,  spreading,  ascending  or 
erect  herbs.  The  often  thickish  and  fleshy  leaves  are  opposite,  un- 
toothed  or  wavy  margined,  of  a  lance-shaped,  elliptic  or  ovate  type, 
frequently  oblique  at  the  base.  The  flowers  are  several  to  numerous 
in  umbellike  heads,  more  or  less  fragrant,  white,  pink,  yellow  or 
red,  salverform  or  funnelform,  the  tube  long  and  slender,  the 
upper  flaring  part  (limb)  5  lobed,  subtended  by  an  involucre  of  thin 
bracts;  stamens  5  (occasionally  4),  small  and  included  within  the 
flower  tube.  Fruit  winged  or  deeply  lobed,  the  wings  or  lobes  thick- 
ish and  opaque.  Often  showy  plants  and  some  of  them  in  ornamen- 


106  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

tal  cultivation,  growing-  naturally  in  sandy,  sunny  places,  dry 
streambeds,  and  the  like. 

The  following-  three  species  are  reasonably  representative  of 
the  genus : 

Redstem  santlverbena  (Abronia  elliptica  A.  Nels.)  rang-es  from 
Wyoming  (also  in  Gem  County,  Idaho)  and  Colorado  to  Utah  and 
northern  and  central  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico.  It  has  a  thick 
woody  root  and  crown,  trailing-  or  semierect  stems  usually  with  a 
peculiar  reddish  tinge,  greenish-white  flowers  subtended  by  an 
involucre  of  broad  bracts  which  Standley  (185)  states  "usually 
have  a  reddish  or  purplish  tinge  below  which  is  characteristic  of 
this  species  alone."  The  top-shaped,  obscurely  hairy  fruit  usually 
has  five  narrow  wings  with  rounded,  blunt  tips. 

Mostly  in  "desert"  areas;  up  to  8,000  feet  in  Colorado  (90). 
Collected  in  southeastern  Utah  as  7,000  feet,  south  slope,  sandy 
loam  soil,  in  a  grass-weed  type.  So  far  as  known  this  plant  has 
little,  if  any,  forage  value  but  more  data  are  desired.  It  is  closely 
related  to  the  next  species,  of  which  some  deem  it  to  be  a  variety. 

2.  Snowball  sandverbena  (Abronia  fragrans  Nutt.)  ranges  from 
South  Dakota  to  Idaho,  and  south  to  Arizona,  Mexico,  Texas,  Ne- 
braska, and  Iowa.  It  has  very  fragrant  white  flowers  and  differs 
from  A.  elliptica  chiefly  in  the  narrower  inflorescence  bracts  and 
the  paler,  different-shaped  fruits  that  are  squared  at  the  top  and 
narrowed  below.  It  is  cultivated  as  an  ornamental.  The  forage 
value  seems  to  be  nil  or  very  limited  but  more  data  are  desired.  The 
thick  farinaceous  root  is  said  to  have  been  eaten  occasionally  by 
Indians.  It  has  been  recommended  as  a  perfumery  plant  (1 68, 180) . 

3.  Yellow  sandverbena  (Abronia  latifolia  Eschsch.)  occurs  from 
Vancouver  Island  and  British  Columbia  to  Santa  Barbara  County, 
California.  It  is  especially  well  developed  on  beaches  and  dunes 
near  the  Pacific  but  is  found  farther  inland  on  sandy  soils.  It  is 
a  trailing,  almost  vinelike  plant,  with  rooting  stems  and  a  stout, 
spindle-shaped  or  cylindrical  taproot  up  to  2  inches  thick  and  II/2 
feet  or  so  long,  with  ropelike,  spongy  branches  often  several  feet 
long.  The  leaves  are  round  or  nearly  so.  The  flowers  are  yellow, 
with  a  somewhat  orangelike  fragrance ;  numerous,  trumpet  shaped 
with  5  lobes,  about  V2  inch  long.  The  fruit  is  leathery,  broadly  top 
shaped,  almost  squared  (truncate)  at  the  tip,  with  usually  five 
narrow,  thick,  hollow  wings. 

Smith  (182)  quotes  Leckenby  to  the  effect  that  this  species  "fur- 
nishes some  pasturage  for  cattle,  besides  being  an  excellent  soil- 
binder"  ;  aside  from  this  note,  palatability  data  on  the  plant  appear 
to  be  lacking.  The  species  is  used  to  illustrate  the  genus  in  Bailey's 
(8)  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture  where  it  is  stated  that 
the  plant  is  useful  as  an  ornamental  "for  baskets  and  rockeries." 
Watson  (207)  and  Schneider  (180)  indicate  that  the  root  is  some- 
times eaten  by  Indians. 

Very  close  botanically  to  the  genus  Abronia  is  sandpuffs  (Trip- 
terocalyx).  This  is  a  group  of  5  species  occupying  the  area  from 
Utah  and  Nevada  to  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  northern 
Mexico,  except  that  1  species  reaches  California  and  another  [T. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  107 

micranthus  (Torr.)  Hook.]  goes  north  as  far  as  Montana,  North 
Dakota,  and  western  Kansas.  The  forage  values  appear  to  be  the 
same  as  those  of  Abronia  but  more  data  are  desired.  They  are 
succulent  annuals  differing  chiefly  from  Abronia  in  the  flower 
lobes  and  stamens  being  typically  4  (instead  of  5),  and  in  the  con- 
spicuous, thin,  net  veined,  fishscalelike  wings  completely  covering 
the  body  of  the  fruit. 

Longtube  angel-trunipet  ( Acleisanthes  longiflora  A.  Gray)^^  is 
a  rather  spectacular,  woody-rooted,  more  or  less  trailing  perennial 
growing  in  "desert"  sites  from  southern  California  to  west  Texas 
and  northern  Mexico.  The  opposite  leaves  are  entire  or  wavy 
margined,  thick,  the  blades  somewhat  triangular  or  rhombicovate 
or  lance  shaped.  The  white  or  purple-tinged  flowers,  terminal  or 
from  the  leaf  axils  are  usually  solitary,  fragrant,  night  blooming, 
with  a  long  slender  tube  4  to  8  inches  long,  the  tip  flaring  and  5 
lobed.  The  fruit  is  cylindrical  or  oblong  and  5  angled  or  ribbed. 
Called  in  California  "yerba-de-la-rabia."  Data  are  lacking  re- 
garding the  palatability  of  this  plant,  but  it  is  probably  not  abun- 
dant enough  to  have  any  forage  significance. 

Acleisa7ithes  is  represented  by  seven  (chiefly  Texan)  western 
species.  Parks  (153)  warmly  recommends  the  ornamental  cultiva- 
tion of  A.  longiflora  and  also  of  the  tree-climbing,  smaller,  and 
late-afternoon  flowering  A.  obtusa  (Choisy)  Standi.  He  also  recom- 
mends for  ornamental  cultivation  the  annual,  triangular-leaved, 
brilliantly  red-flowered  ISyctaginia  capitata  Choisy,  which  he  calls 
"devils-bouquet."  It  is  a  relative  of  this  family  and  is  said  to  resist 
the  hottest,  driest  weather. 

Allionia  (Allionia,  syns.  Wedelia  Loefl.,  not  Jacq., 
Wedeliella) 

Allionia^'^  is  a  genus  of  prostrate-trailing  annual  or  perennial 
herbs,  with  opposite,  stalked,  mostly  fleshy  and  untoothed  or  wavy- 
margined  leaves.  The  flowers  are  bell  shaped  or  flaring  (campanu- 
late-rotate),  usually  in  3-flowered,  stalked  involucres.  The  fruits 
are  strongly  flattened,  oval  or  obovate  in  outline,  the  back  (dorsal) 
side  with  two  rows  of  stalked  glands,  the  margins  usually  toothed 
and  inbent  over  the  back  face. 

Allionia  and  Oxijbaphus  are  much  confused  in  many  of  the  books. 
Umbrellawort  (Oxbaphus)  has  very  different  fruit,  which  is  not 

^^Acleisanthes  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words  plus  alpha  privative,  signi- 
fying "flower  not  shut  up,"  alluding  to  the  lack  of  a  basal  involucre.  The 
name  angel-trumpet  for  this  genus  is  objected  to  by  some,  but  the  name  does 
not  appear  to  be  in  use  for  other  plants  except  for  floripondio  datura  {Datura 
arborea  L.)  and  perhaps  also  for  the  related  angeltears  datura  {D. 
suaveolens  Humb.  &  Bonpl.),  two  tropical- American  small  trees  or  large 
shrubs  of  the  jimsonweed  genus,  which  are  often  called  "angels-trumpet,"  and 
the  former  "reina-de-la-noche." 

''^'^ Allionia  L.  (1759)  is  conserved,  under  the  International  Code,  as  against 
Wedelia  Loefl.  (1758).  This  also  has  enabled  conservation  of  the  otherwise 
homonymous  Wedelia  Jacq.  (1760)  for  a  genus  of  composites.  Wedeliella 
Cockerel!  (1909)  was  published  to  replace  (the  at  that  time  untenable) 
Wedelia  Loefl. 


108     AUIilCULTUKK    IIANDHOOK   1(U,  U.S.  UKPT.  OF  AdRICULTURE 

at  all  flattened,  distinctly  5  angled  rather  than  with  the  margins 
toothed  and  infolded  ;  the  plants  tend  to  he  more  ascending  and 
erect  than  prostrate-trailing  as  in  allionia;  the  involucres  are  con- 
spicuously veined,  usualy  have  more  flowers  than  in  allionia,  and 
become  papery  and  greatly  enlarged  in  fruit.  There  are  three  or 
four  range  species  of  allionia,  but  trailing  allionia  is  probably  the 
commonest  and  best  known.   • 

rrailiii*;  allionia  [Allionia  incarnaln  L.,  syns.  A.  divaricata  Rydb., 
W'cdilia  iiiraniata  (L.)  Kuutze,  WcddicUa  incarnata  (L.)  Cockll.] 
is  often  called  "cartwheel,"  "gunaninpil,"  "purple-creeper,"  and 
"trailing  four-o'clock."  This  is  a  perennial  trailing  sticky  herb, 
the  stems  4  to  .'50  inches  long,  found  from  western  Texas  to  Col- 
orado, Utah,  Nevada,  southeastern  California  and  south,  through 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  to  Mexico,  the  West  Indies  and,  in  South 
America,  as  far  as  Chile  and  Argentina.  Venezuela  is  the  type 
locality.  The  leaves  are  typically  ovate  or  oblong.  The  small  flowers 
are  rose  colored  or  occasionally  white,  3  in  each  of  the  3-lobed 
involucres.  The  leathery  fruits  are  about  V}{  inch  long  or  a  little 
more  and  incurved.  The  plant  is  found  in  sandy  soils,  washes, 
woods,  valleys,  canyons,  riverbanks,  dry  hills,  etc.,  from  the  pa- 
loverde-creosotebush  type  to  the  woodland  type. 

The  palatability  of  trailing  allionia  varies  with  the  season,  and 
the  presence  and  available  amount  of  more  palatable  grass  and 
other  forage.  Thornber  (JOl)  reported  the  plant  to  be  of  con- 
siderable value  on  many  summer  Arizona  ranges.  Smith  (182) 
stated  that  is  "comes  up  from  the  seed  after  the  summer  rains  in 
*  *  *  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  and  furnishes  a  palatable  and 
nutritious  food  for  sheep  and  cattle.  It  stands  pasturing  well,  and 
usually  ripens  an  abundance  of  seed." 

Spiderling  (Boerhaavia) 

This  is  a  genus  of  annual  or  perennial  herbs,  mostly  branched 
from  the  base  and  often  with  the  stem  joints  sticky-banded.  The 
very  small  flowers  (particularly  so  for  this  family)  are  in  terminal 
racemes,  cymes,  umbels  or  heads,  from  an  involucre  of  distinct 
bracts;  the  pcriauth,  or  conspicuous  corollalike  part  of  flower, 
bell  shaped  to  flaring,  chiefly  5  lobed.  The  fruit  is  character- 
istically more  or  less  club  shaped  and  5  (occasionally  fewer)  ribbed. 
Named  by  Linnaeus  for  his  patron  and  friend,  the  celebrated  Dutch 
phvsician,  professor  and  savant  of  Levden,  Hermann  Boerhaave 
(1668-1788).  teacher  of  Peter  the  Great. 

The  following  two  species  are  representative  of  the  western 
range  members: 

1.  Scarlet  spiderling  (Boerhaavia  coccinea  Mill.,  syns.  B.  cari- 
haca  Jacq.,  B.  vwcosa  Lag.  &  Rodr.,  B.  viscosa  var.  oJigadeiia 
Heimerl)  is  a  variable,  widely  distributed  perennial  herb — possibly 
sometimes  annual  or  biennial  at  the  northern  edge  of  its  range, 
ranging  from  tropical  America  to  Florida,  Texas,  New  Mexico, 
and  Arizona ;  reported  as  occasionally  naturalized  farther  north. 
It  has  many  stout,  sticky-hairy,  trailing  stems  1  to  5  feet  long; 
opposite,  rounded,  ovate  or  oblong  leaves,  either  smooth  or  sticky, 


NOTES  OX  WESTERN  RANGE  i  .:  V'^-^ 

up  to  21 2  inches  lon^,  pale  below  and  often  with  _  .. ,  ::_.::-_ 
rruirgin- 

The  flowers  are  red  to  purplish,  in  cymes,  the  stamens  1  to  3. 
The  fruits  are  sticky,  helping  in  their  dissemination.  In  the 
Southwest  in  sandy  deserts,  washes,  along  roadsides,  old  fi^ds 
and  waste  places,  and  also  rather  dry  loamy  sites,  open  grassweed 
t>-pes.  at  medium  and  low  elevaticms.  Sometimes  a  troabksome 
v.eed  in  gardens.  It  is  widinarily  unpalatable  to  domestic  Hrestock. 
Forest  Service  employees  in  southeastern  Arizona  have  reported 
its  value  as  "none." 

2.  Erert  spiderlin^  [Boerhamwim  eredm  L.,  syns.  B.  erecta  Tar. 
thornberi  (M.  E.  Jones)  Standi,  B.  tlwmberi  M.  E.  Jones]  occurs 
from  tropical  America  north  to  the  southern  part  of  the  United 
States  from  South  Carolina  to  Florida,  west  to  Louisiana,  Artcan- 
sas,  Texas,  New  3Iexico.  and  Arizona.  It  is  an  erect  annual,  often 
branched  from  the  ba.se,  the  branches  spreading  and  1  to  4  feet 
long.  The  leaves  are  of  an  ovate  or  triangular-ovate  type,  the  lower 
surfaces  whiti-sh  to  cottony  and  minutely  black  dotted. 

The  small  flowers  are  white  or  purplish,  on  stalks  usually  more 
than  2  mm.  (M2  inch)  long,  in  loose  heads  arranged  in  racemes 
or  umbels.  The'hairle.s.s.  ribbed  fruits  are  unwinged  and  with  a 
flattened  tip.  In  the  var.  intermtedim  (M.  E.  Jones)  Kearney  &  Pec* 
hie*  (syn.  B.  mier-media  M.  E.  Jones),  the  stems  are  shorter,  the 
inflorescence  more  compact  and  umbellike,  and  the  fruits  smaller. 
In  sandy  or  gravely  soils,  waste  places,  fields,  roadsides,  dry 
washes,  and  the  like,  up  to  about  5,700  feet  Of  little  or  no  value; 
occasionally  nibbled  by  sheep  and  cattle. 

Slim  gpiderling  (Boerhmtmm  grmtOHmui  Hebnerl)  (fig.  24)  occurs 
on  sandy-gravelly-rocky  plains  and  foothills,  between  elevations  of 
about  2,500  and  4,500  feet,  from  western  Texas  to  Arizona  and 
south  in  ^fexieo  to  Lower  C^fomia  and  Oaxaca.  It  is  a  much- 
branched,  slender-stemmed  perennial  from  a  thick  woody  root  and 
cro-n-n.  The  plant  is  hairless  (glabrous)  or  somewhat  puberulent, 
never  gJandvlar.  The  flowers  are  red,  solitary,  on  long  sknder 
stalks  (pedkeU).  The  small  fruits  are  beset  with  more  or  less 
spreading  hairs.  It  is  not  known  to  have  any  f<M'age  value. 

Hermidium  (HermuUum  dUpe»  S.  Wala.)  is  the  only  known 
member  of  its  genus  and  occurs  in  lower  foothills  from  California 
to  Nevada  and  Utah.  It  15  a  Uuish,  erect  or  ascending,  rather  stout 
herb  %iith  paired  (dwhoiomovis)  In'anches,  perennial  from  a  thick 
woody  taproot.  The  broad  thick  leaf  blades  are  rounded  to  ovate 
or  oval,  up  to  3  inches  long.  The  purplish-red  or  K^it-purple 
flowers,  up  t>o  1  inch  long,  are  in  hea^Dike  clusters  of  about  6,  each 
flower  attached  to  a  large  and  leaflike  bract  The  fruit,  about  14 
inch  long,  is  a  little  narrowed  at  each  end,  smooQi  or  a  little  rough- 
ened. A  Forest  Service  employee  found  this  jAant  "common  in  bare 
spots  in  roads"  in  an  area  at  5,000  feet  in  western  Utah.  Forage 
values  of  the  species  are  probably  negligible  to  low. 

Watson  (207)  described  the  genus  and  species  in  the  botany  of 
he  King  Exploration,  where  a  fine  plate  of  the  plant  appears. 
The  significance  of  the  name  Hermidium  is  a  bit  obscure;  appar- 


110  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Figure   24.— Slim   spiderling    {Boerhaavia  gracillima   Heimerl) .     Individual 
flower  and  fruit  (lower  left-hand  corner). 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  111 

ently  it  is  a  diminutive  of  Hermes  (Mercury)  and  perhaps  may 
refer  to  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  large  flower  bracts  to  the 
winged  sandals  or  winged  cap  (petasos)  of  that  Graeco-Roman 
god. 

Four-O'Glock  (Mirabilis,  syns.  Allioniella,  Hesperonia, 
Quamoclidion) 

This  group  consists  of  perennial  herbs  with  thick  woody  roots 
and  usually  broad  leaves.  The  salver-shaped,  funnelform  or  some- 
times bell-like  (campanulate),  often  brightly  colored  flowers  are 
solitary  or  several  in  a  calyxlike  involucre  that  does  not  become 
conspicuoushj  enlarged  a7id  jmpery  in  fruit;  stamens  3  to  5.  The 
small  hard  fruits  are  not  strongly  5  angled  but  may  be  5  ribbed ; 
they  are  smooth  or  minutely  warty.  Allio7iiella  and  Quamoclidion 
(considered  by  some  to  be  distinct  genera)  differ  from  typical 
Mirahilis  in  having  the  involucres  more  than  1  flowered ;  the 
Allioniella  and  Hesperonia  sections  have  a  very  short  perianth 
tube;  Allio7iiella  and  Quamoclidion  have  a  bell-like  (campanulate) 
flower  (perianth). 

The  best  known  member  of  the  genus  is  the  common  four- 
o'clock  of  the  gardens  (Mirabilis  jalapa  L.)  which  derives  its 
common  name  from  the  fact  that  its  flowers  open  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  afternoon.  Linnaeus  obviously  called  the  genus  Mira- 
bilis (meaning  marvelous,  or  wonderful)  because  of  the  common 
name  then  current  "marvel-of-Peru."  Before  him  Tournefort 
called  the  genus  Jalapa  and  Linnaeus  attached  that  name  to  the 
common  four-o'clock,  the  root  of  which  at  one  time  was  considered 
a  cathartic.  Tournefort  perhaps  confused  this  plant  with  the  quite 
different  true  medicinal  jalap  [Exogonium  jalapa  (L.)  Baillon, 
syns.  Convolvulas  jalapa  L.,  Ipomoea  jalapa  Coxe  (1830)  not  Pursh 
(1814) ,  Ipomoea  purga  Hayne,  Exogonium  purga  (Hayne)  Lindl.]. 

Wishboneplant,  or  Bigelow  four-o'clock  [Mirabilis  bigelovii  A. 
Gray,  syn.  Hesperonia  bigelovii  (A.  Gray)  Standi.]  is  a  very  sticky- 
hairy,  erect  or  spreading  perennial,  somewhat  undershrubby  at 
base.  The  leaves,  a  little  less  or  a  little  more  than  1  inch  long,  are 
rounded  to  triangular  ovate,  somewhat  heart  shaped  or  rounded 
at  base.  The  white  or  pinkish  flowers  are  I/4,  to  1/2  inch  long,  soli- 
tary in  involucres  about  l^  inch  long,  their  triangular  lobes  shorter 
than  the  united  lower  part  (tube).  The  plant  occurs  in  desert 
canyons  and  the  like  from  southern  Nevada,  southern  California, 
and  Arizona  south  into  Sonora. 

Mirabilis  bigelovii  is  conspicuously  repeatedly  branched  in  pairs 
( dichotomously ) — giving  an  appearance  of  successive  "wishbones" 
— whence  the  common  name.  The  scientific  name  commemorates 
Dr.  John  Milton  Bigelow  (1804-78),  U.  S.  Army  surgeon  with  the 
Mexican  Boundary  Survey  of  1853  and  the  eponym  of  many  west- 
ern plants.  The  variety  retrorsa  (Heller)  Munz  [syns.  M.  retrorsa 
Heller,  Hesperonia  retrorsa  (Heller)  Standi.]  differs  only  in  that 
the  lower  part  of  the  stems  is  occasionally  hairless  (glabrous)  and 
the  pubescence  is  rougher  and  downbent  (retrorse).  The  plant 
appears  to  be  disregarded  by  domestic  livestock. 


112  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  1(31,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Longtube  four-o'clock  (Mirabilis  longi flora  L.)  occurs  from 
western  Texas  to  Arizona  and  south  into  Mexico.  It  is  sometimes 
as  much  as  5  feet  high  and  is  usually  very  sticky-hairy — at  least  in 
the  inflorescence.  The  conspicuous  feature  of  the  species  is  the 
extraordinarily  long-  (3  to  7  inches)  and  slender  tube  of  the  whit- 
ish (usually  ting-ed  with  pinkish  or  purplish)  flowers,  with  abrupt- 
ly flaring  mouth  and  long-exserted  stamens.  The  var.  wrightiana 
(A.  Gray)  Kearney  &  Peebles  (syn.  M.  ivrightiana  A.  Gray)  differs 
from  the  typical  form  of  the  species  in  that  the  leaves  are  usually 
distinctly  stalked  (petioled)  and  the  stems  are  minutely  hairy 
rather  than  conspicuously  viscid,  or  sticky.  This  variety  is  named 
for  Charles  Wright  (1811-85),  the  well-known  early  botanical  ex- 
plorer of  the  Southwest. 

The  common  four-o'clock  (Mirahilis  jalapa  L.),  native  of  trop- 
ical South  America,  Central  America,  and  Mexico,  is  native  also 
in  the  United  States  in  western  Texas.  It  has  escaped  from  culti- 
vation in  many  parts  of  the  world.  So  far  as  the  writer  knows 
there  is  no  reference  to  this  plant  in  toxicological  literature,  but 
Degener  (57,  Fam.  113)  says  that  the  seeds  and  roots  are  poison- 
ous. He  adds  that  "the  mealy  endosperm  of  the  seeds  was  used  in 
Korea  and  Japan  as  face  powder.  The  plant  is  still  occasionally 
used  by  the  Hawaiians  as  a  medicine,  and  the  fruits  are  employed 
in  making  necklaces." 

Colorado  four-o'clock  {Mirahilis  multiflora  (Torr.)  A.  Gray,  syn. 
Qumnoclidion  muUifiorum  Torr.]  (fig.  25)  ranges  from  (western 
and  southern)  Colorado  and  Utah  to  southern  California,  east, 
through  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  to  western  Texas  and  south  into 
Mexico.  A  diffusely  branched  herb  perennial  from  a  deep,  thick- 
ened woody  root;  stems  stout,  up  to  about  40  inches  long.  The 
rose-colored  to  purplish-red  and  purple  flowers  are  large  (up  to  2 
inches  long)  and  showy,  up  to  6  together  in  a  large  calyxlike  in- 
volucre, whose  5  triangularly  lobed  bracts  are  united  for  at  least 
half  their  length.  Flowering  period,  June  to  September.  Fruit 
hard,  smooth,  dark  brown  to  black,  not  angled  and  not  narrowed 
at  base. 

Watson  (207)  notes  "flowers  open  from  four  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon till  nine  in  the  morning."  Mostly  in  partly  shaded  sites  on 
plains,  foothills,  and  valleys,  and  in  the  mountains  between  about 
4,000  and  9,000  feet.  Although  occasionally  observed  to  be  grazed 
by  goats,  cattle,  and  sheep,  the  plant  is  generally  regarded  as  hav- 
ing little  or  no  forage  value.  However,  it  has  excellent  possibilities 
for  ornamental  cultivation.  Standley  (186)  has  a  fine  photographic 
plate  (No.  77,  opposite  p.  411)  of  this  plant  in  full  bloom.  Kearney 
and  Peebles  (109)  refer  to  reports  that  the  Hopi  Indians  "eat  the 
root  to  induce  visions"  and  that  "the  powdered  root  is  used  as 
remedy  for  stomach  ache." 

Umbrellawort  four-o'clock  [Mirahilis  oxyhaphoides  A.  Gray,  syns. 
Allioniella  oxyhaphoides  (A.  Gray)  Rydb.,  Quamoclidion  oxyha- 
phoides A.  Gray],  perennial  from  a  thick  fleshy  root,  occurs  in  the 
woodland  and  ponderosa  pine  types  from  southern  Colorado  and 
Utah  to  northern  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  western  Texas.  The 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


113 


F-209319 

Figure  25. — Colorado  four-o'clock  (Mirabilis  multifiora  (Torr.)  A.  Gray,  syn. 
Quamoclidion  multiflorum  Torr.). 


herbage  is  sticky-hairy  when  young  but  becomes  smoother  as  the 
season  advances ;  the  many  branches  are  slender,  green  or  whitish, 
the  plants  often  occurring  in  dense  tufts  up  to  4  feet  in  diameter. 
The  small  l^  to  %  inch  long)  flowers  are  3  in  a  saucer-shaped  in- 
volucre that  enlarges  in  fruit ;  they  are  bell-funnel-shaped,  the  tube 
very  short;  stamens  3,  their  stalks  (filameyits)  separate.  The 
plant  is  often  abundant  locally  but  scattered  in  occurrence.  The 
forage  value  is  low  or  nil. 


114  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Umbrella  wort  (Oxybaphus) 

Perennial  herbs,  varying  in  habit  from  low  and  trailing  to  tall 
and  erect,  with  opposite  and  usually  rather  thick  leaves.  The 
flowers  are  somewhat  oblique,  bell  shaped  to  short  funnelform, 
small — less  than  1  inch  long,  in  1-  to  5-flowered  calyxlike,  united, 
net-veined  involucres  conspicuously  enlarging  and  becoming 
papery  in  fruit;  stamens  3  to  5,  unequal  in  length.  The  fruit  is  5 
angled,  constricted  at  the  base,  reverse  egg  shaped  with  the  broad- 
er end  uppermost ;  mucilaginous  when  wet. 

Sticky  umbrellawort  [Oxybaphus  comatus  (Small)  Weatherby, 
syns.  AlUonia  comata  Small,  A.  melanotricha  Standi.,  O.  melano- 
trichus  (Standi.)  Weatherby]  ranges  from  western  Texas  to  ex- 
treme southwestern  Colorado,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and 
south  into  Mexico,  from  foothills  to  the  ponderosa  pine  and  spruce- 
fir  belts.  It  is  an  erect,  sticky-hairy  perennial,  1  to  4  feet  high,  with 
opposite  leaves  varying  from  elongated  triangular  to  lance-ovate 
or  ovate,  and  usually  II/2  to  4  times  longer  than  wide.  The  flowers 
vary  from  purplish  red  to  pink.  This  plant  has  been  reported  to 
be  fair  to  good  sheep  and  cattle  feed  from  June  to  October. 

Hairy  umbrellawort  {^Oxybaphus  hirsutus  (Pursh)  Sweet,  syns. 
AlUonia  hirsuta  Pursh,  A.  jnlosa  (Nutt.)  Rydb.,  Mirahilis  hirsuta 
(Pursh)  Mac.M.]  is  an  erect  or  decumbent,  more  or  less  hairy- 
stemmed  perennial  1  to  4  feet  high,  with  linear-lance-shaped  to  ob- 
long leaves,  purplish  or  pinkish  flowers,  and  hairy  fruit.  It  occurs 
in  dry  sandy  soils  and  has  an  unusually  wide  range  in  the  United 
States  from  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  south  to  Louisiana  and 
Texas,  and  west  to  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana, 
and  Saskatchewan.  Forage  data  on  this  plant  are  in  some  conflict, 
and  more  data  are  desired.  Biochemical  studies  in  this  family 
might  prove  of  considerable  interest. 

Narrowleaf  umbrellawort  {^Oxybaphus  linearis  (Pursh)  Robins., 
syns.  AlUonia  divaricata  Rydb.,  A.  linearis  Pursh,  0.  angusti- 
folius  Sweet]  (fig.  26)  is  a  typically  bluish  and  smooth  (at  least 
below)  perennial  herb,  with  slender  erect  stems  up  to  4  (rarely  5) 
feet  high,  found  from  Illinois  and  Minnesota  south  to  Louisiana 
and  Texas,  and  west  to  Arizona,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  eastern  Mon- 
tana. The  inflorescence  and  fruit  and  often  the  upper  parts  of  the 
stems  are  more  or  less  hairy. 

In  the  typical  form  the  thick,  opposite  stalkless  (sessile),  or 
nearly  so,  leaves  are  linear  or  narrowly  lance  shaped  I/2  to  2Vi> 
inches  long ;  the  small  flowers  are  purplish  or  pinkish  and  appear 
from  June  to  October.  The  fruit  is  usually  roughened  between  the 
five  ribs.  The  var.  decipiens  (Standi.)  Kearney  &  Peebles  (syn. 
AlUonia  decipiens  Standi.)  has  broader  (sometimes  ovate-lance- 
shaped),  short-stalked  leaves.  The  var.  subhispida  (Heimerl) 
Dayt.  [syns.  AlUonia  gausapoides  Standi.,  A.  linearis  var.  sub- 
hispida (Heimerl)  Standi.,  A.  subhispida  (Heimerl)  Standi.,  Mira- 
bilis  linearis  var.  subhispida  Heimerl]  has  densely  hairy  stems. 

The  plant  occupies  rather  dry  to  medium  moist,  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils — sometimes  also  heavy  clays  and  moist  rich  loam — from 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


115 


F-257247 

Figure  26.— Narrowleaf  umbrellawort  [Oxybaphi(s  linearis  (Pursh)  Robins., 
syns.  Allionia  divaricata  Rydb.,  A.  linearis  Pursh,  0.  angustifolius  Sweet]. 
A,  Involucre  and  expanded  flower;  B,  fruiting  involucre  and  fruit. 


116  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

"desert"  areas  to  the  ponderosa  pine  type,  often  in  partly  protected 
sites,  as  under  mesquite  bushes  or  under  cottonwoods  in  canyons. 
As  a  rule,  this  plant  is  eaten  only  a  little,  if  at  all,  by  cattle  and 
sheep. 

Scarlet  umbrellawort  {Oxyhaphus  coccinea  Torr.,  syn.  Allionia 
coccinea  (Torr.)  Standi.]  of  woodland-grass  and  ponderosa  pine 
types,  of  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Sonora,  is  rather  closely  re- 
lated to  0.  linearis.  It  has  relatively  large  (up  to  %  inch  long) 
red  flowers  and  is  reported  by  Kearney  and  Peebles  (109)  to  be 
"the  showiest  of  the  Arizona  species." 

The  following  southwestern  plants  of  this  family  are  not  known 
to  have  forage  significance,  but  more  information  about  them  is 
solicited  :  Sandbell  {^Ammocodon  chenopodioides  (A.  Gray)  Standi., 
syn.  Selinocarpus  chenopodioides  A.  Gray]  ;  3  species  of  gumjoint 
( Anulocaulis ) ;  the  somewhat  vinelike  gumseed  {Cotnmicarpus 
scandens  (L.)  Standi.]  with  very  sticky  fruits;  Cyphomeris  gypso- 
philoides  (Mart.  &  Gal.)  Standi,  [syn.  Senkenbergia  gypsophiloides 
(Mart.  &  Gal.  Benth.  &  Hook.]  ;^^  and  4  species  of  moonpod 
(Selinocarpus). 

PORTULAGA  FAMILY  (PORTULAGACEAE) 

Mostly  annual  or  perennial,  often  succulent  herbs,  the  leaves 
alternate,  opposite  or  basal  and  untoothed.  Flowers  with  2  sepals, 
3  to  many  petals,  4  to  many  stamens,  2  to  8  (often  partly  united) 
styles;  ovary  1  celled,  superior    (partly  inferior  in  Portidaca). 

Fruit,  a  capsule,  opening  by  a  circular  slit  (circumscissile)  at 
the  top  or  by  longitudinal  valves ;  seeds  1  to  many,  chiefly  more  or 
less  rounded  or  kidney  shaped  and  somewhat  flattened.  The  family, 
v/hich  is  of  very  minor  significance  from  the  forage  standpoint,  is 
represented  in  the  western  range  area,  on  a  conservative  basis,  by 
8  genera  and  about  73  species.  Considering  its  relatively  small  size, 
the  family  is  well  represented  in  ornamental  cultivation,  the  flowers 
of  many  of  the  genera  and  species  being  attractive. 

Rockpurslane  (Calandrinia) 

This  is  a  large,  mostly  South  American  and  Australian  genus  of 
annual  or  perennial  herbs,  with  short-lived,  mostly  5-petaled  and 
red  or  white  flowers  with  2  persistent  sepals,  and  3-valved  capsular 
fruits  containing  numerous  dark  seeds.  The  genus,  represented 
in  the  western  range  area  by  about  five  species,  has  very  little 
forage  value.  It  is  named  for  J.  L.  Calandri  (1703-58),  a  botanist 
of  Geneva,  Switzerland. 

Redmaids  \_Calandrina  ciliata  (Ruiz  &  Pavon)  DC.  and  variety 
menziesii  (Hook.)  J.  F.  Macbride,  syn.  C.  cmdescens  var.  menziesii 
(Hook.)  A.  Gray]  ranges  from  near  sea  level,  chiefly  west  of  the 
Cascades  and  Coast  Ranges,  in  open,  often  moist,  sunny  places 


i^The  generic  name  Cyphomeris  was  published  by  Standley  to  replace  the 
homonymous  and  untenable  Senkenhergia  Schauer  (1847),  not  Senckenhergia 
Gaertn.,  Mey.  &  Scherb.  (1800)  which  latter,  in  turn,  is  a  synonym  of  the 
mustard  family  pepperweed  genus  Lepidium. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  117 

from  near  sea  level  to  the  ponderosa  pine  belt,  from  British  Colum- 
bia to  Lower  California  and,  less  commonly,  in  Arizona  and  Sonora. 
It  is  a  small  annual,  with  narrow  leaves,  rose  red  flowers  about  % 
to  '^i.  of  an  inch  broad,  in  racemes  appearing  in  early  spring,  and 
numerous,  black,  shiny,  minutely  warty  seeds.  It  is  cultivated  as 
an  ornamental  but  is  negligible  as  forage. 

Calyptridium  (Calyptridium) 

Calyptridium  is  a  genus  of  (conservatively)  4  species  confined 
to  western  North  America  and,  with  one  exception,  to  the  3  Pacific 
States,  Lower  California,  Sonora,  Arizona,  and  Nevada.  They  are 
all  small  annuals  with  numerous  spreading  stems,  with  basal  and 
alternate  largely  spatula-shaped  leaves,  small  flowers  in  1-sided  and 
often  twisted  spikes  or  spikelike  panicles,  2  broad  somewhat  fused 
sepals  unequal  in  size,  1  to  3  stamens,  and  a  short  style  with  2 
stigmas.  The  fruit  is  a  2-valved  capsule  with  flattened  seed.  The 
name  Calyptridiinn  is  a  Latinized  diminutive  of  the  Greek  KakvnTpa 
(a  woman's  veil  or  the  cover  of  a  quiver)  and  refers  to  the  fact  that 
the  2  to  4  petals  soon  dry  and,  persisting,  fold  like  a  sort  of  cap  on 
the  fruit.  The  plants  occur  mostly  at  the  lower  elevations  and,  as 
a  rule,  have  no  forage  value. 

Rosy  calyptridium  (Calyptridium  roseum  S.  Wats.)  occurs  in 
eastern  Oregon  and  California,  through  Nevada,  and  has  been 
reported  from  Wyoming.  It  has  been  suspected  to  occur  in  Idaho 
but  apparently  has  not  yet  been  collected  there. 

Springbeauty  (Claytonia) 

Smooth  herbs  perennial  from  deep-seated  bulblike  corms  or  with 
fleshy  taproots  or  rootstocks.  There  is  a  solitary  or  several  basal 
leaves  and  usually  two  opposite  or  subopposite  stem  leaves,  with 
occasionally  a  third  leaf  present.  The  pink,  white  or  yellow  flowers 
have  2  sepals,  5  (sometimes  6)  petals,  and  5  stamens.  The  fruit  is 
a  3-valved  capsule  with  2  to  6  black  or  blackish  shining  seeds.  The 
genus  is  named  for  Dr.  John  Clayton  (1693-1773)  whose  exten- 
sive collections  of  Virginia  plants  were  sent  to  the  famous  Dutch 
physician  and  botanist  Gronovius  and  published  by  him  in  Flora 
Virginica  (1762). 

Claytonia  is  especially  well  developed  in  the  western  range  area 
where  about  15  species  occur — the  number  varying  in  the  literature 
because  of  confusion  with  the  genus  Montia.  The  palatability  of 
these  delicate  little  plants  to  domestic  livestock,  deer,  and  elk  is 
fairly  good  or  good  but  they  appear  early  in  the  spring  (often 
flowering  right  out  of  the  edge  of  melting  snowbanks),  are  evane- 
scent, and  the  amount  of  herbage  produced  is  slight,  so  that  their 
forage  value  is  rather  insignificant.  Hogs  are  fond  of  the  corms 
of  those  species  which  produce  them  and  which  are  sometimes 
called  "Indian-potato."  Some  of  the  species  are  cultivated  in  wild- 
flower  gardens. 

Two  of  the  commonest  range  species  are  lanceleaf  springbeauty 
(Claytonia  lanceolata  Pursh,  syn.  C.  multiscapa  Rydb.),  a  lance- 


118  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

leaved,  cormose  plant  with  purple-veined  rose-colored  flowers, 
ranging  from  British  Columbia  and  Alberta  to  California  and  New 
Mexico,  and  alpine  springbeauty  [C  megarrhiza  (A.  Gray)  Parry, 

from  which  C.  beUidifolia  Rydb.  is  somewhat  doubtfully  separable] 
a  high-range  plant  with  tufted  basal  leaves  and  a  thick  taproot, 
occurring  from  southeastern  British  Columbia  to  western  Mon- 
tana and  south  to  northeastern  Oregon,  Utah,  and  New  Mexico. 

Lewisia  (Lewisia,  syns.  Erocallis,  Limnia  in  part, 
Oreobroma) 

The  genus  honors  Capt.  Meriwether  Lewis  (1774-1809)  of  the 
Lewis  &  Clark  Expedition  and  first  Governor  of  Louisiana  Terri- 
tory. This  is  a  variable  group  of  about  15  western  range  species; 
they  are  smooth  perennial  herbs  with  rounded  bulblike  corms,  or 
thick,  often  branched  taproots  or  occasionally  fibrous  rooted.  The 
leaves  are  largely  basal,  those  of  the  stem  often  much  reduced. 
The  mostly  white  or  pinkish,  short-lived  flowers  vary  from  small  to 
large  and  showy,  solitary  or  in  umbels  or  other  types  of  clusters, 
with  2  to  6  persistent  sepals,  4  to  18  petals,  3  to  8  styles  united  at 
base,  5  to  many  stamens,  superior  ovary  and  more  or  less  rounded 
fruiting  capsules  that  open  horizontally  (circumscissile)  near  the 
base  and  then  split  toward  the  apex.  The  forage  value  is  low ;  some 
species  are  cultivated  in  wildflower  gardens.  Indians  and  early 
settlers  used  the  roots  of  many  of  the  species  for  food — to  which 
the  name  of  the  synonymous  genus  Oreobroma  ("mountain  food") 
refers. 

The  best  known  species  of  this  genus  is  bitterroot  (Lewisia 
rediviva  Piirsh)  (fig.  27),  the  State  flower  of  Montana  and  name- 
sake of  the  Bitterroot  Mountains  and  Bitterroot  National  Forest, 
which  occurs  at  considerable  altitudinal  variation  in  the  moun- 
tains from  British  Columbia  to  Montana,  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Cali- 
fornia. Some  of  the  books  record  it  from  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
but  this  apparently  is  questionable.  This  interesting  low  rosette 
plant,  with  fleshy  bitter  roots  and  showy  rose-colored  or  white 
flowers,  was  illustrated  with  a  colored  plate  and  extensively  anno- 
tated in  the  Range  Plant  Handbook  (20J^). 

Another  common  member  of  the  genus  is  least  lewisia  [Lewisia 
pygmaea  (A.  Gray)  Robins.,  syns.  Oreobroma  "pygmaeum  (A.  Gray) 
Howell,  O.  grayi  (Britton)  Rydb.],  a  high-mountain  dwarf  herb 
occurring  from  Washington  to  Montana,  Colorado,  northern  New 
Mexico,  and  California.  It  has  stems  1  to  2  inches  high,  succulent 
narrow  leaves  longer  than  the  inflorescence,  and  flowers  with  6 
to  8,  white  or  pinkish  petals  about  %  inch  long,  appearing  from 
June  to  August.  Sheep  are  sometimes  observed  to  nibble  it  but 
it  is  too  small  to  have  much  forage  value.  The  farinaceous  root  has 
only  a  slight  degree  of  astringency  and  had  some  importance  as  a 
food  plant  of  Indians. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


119 


-"  ••  I ..-..A.    /^SV  'A-'l.. 

I^^_  \^ri 

• 

Figure  27. — Bitterroot   (Lewisia  rediviva  Pursh).    (Photo  courtesy  Thomas 
Lommasson.) 


Indianlettuce  (Montia,  syns.  Crunocallis,  Limnia  in  part, 
Montiastrum,  Naiocrene) 

Montia,  with  about  20  western  range  species,  the  exact  number 
somewhat  questionable  because  of  confusion  in  some  of  the  books 
with  Claytonia,  is  a  group  of  annual  or  perennial  herbs  with 
fibrous  roots  or  reproducing  by  runners  or  bulblets.  The  leaves 
are  basal,  opposite  or  alternate,  often  fleshy.  The  pink  or  white 
flowers,  in  racemes  or  panicles,  have  2  persistent  sepals;  2  to  6, 
often  partly  united  petals ;  2  to  5  stamens ;  3  styles,  partly  united ; 
3  (rarely  4)  ovules,  and  3-valved,  globular  or  egg-shaped  capsules 
with  1  to  3,  often  shiny  seeds.  The  genus  commemorates  Giuseppe 
Monti,  an  Italian  physician  and  botanist,  who  published  a  botanical 
index  and  materia  medica  in  1724  and  a  treatise  on  poisonous 
plants  in  1755. 

Some  of  the  species  of  Montia  have  limited  value  for  livestock 
and  wildlife.  The  five  species  briefly  annotated  here  are  probably 
the  commonest  of  the  range  members : 

1.  Asarumleaf  Indianlettuce  {^Montia  asari folia  (Bong.)  Howell, 
syns.  Limnia  asarifolia  (Bong.)  Rydb.,  Claytoriia  asarifolia  Bon- 
gard]  occurs  in  moist  sites,  springy  places,  streambanks  and  the 
like,  in  the  high  mountains  from  Alaska  to  Idaho,  western  Mon- 
tana, and  California.  It  is  perennial  from  short,  creeping  scaly 
rootstocks ;  the  slender  scapelike  stems  are  4  to  12  inches  tall ;  there 


120  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

are  long-stalked,  ovate,  heart-shaped  or  kidney-shaped  basal  leaves, 
and  stalkless  stem  leaves.  Considered  fair  to  good  elk  and  deer 
feed  in  spring  and  summer ;  noted  sometimes  to  be  nibbled  by 
sheep.  Occasionally  used  by  natives  as  a  potherb. 

2.  Siberian  Indianlettuce  IMontia  sibirica  (L.)  Howell,  syn. 
Claytonia  sibirica  L.]  is  very  close  to  M.  asarifolia  botanically,  and 
it  has  a  similar  American  range.  Also  occurs  in  Siberia.  It  is  taller 
than  M.  asarifolia  (sometimes  20  inches),  with  fibrous  roots  in- 
stead of  rootstocks,  either  annual  or  else  perennial  by  offsets,  while 
the  individual  flower  stalks  (pedicels)  are  almost  always  bracted 
(instead  of  bractless).  The  celebrated  Gen.  Frederick  Funston, 
U.S.A.,  who  made  a  botanical  expedition  of  Yakutat  and  Disen- 
chantment Bays,  Alaska,  in  1892  reported  this  plant  as  very  abun- 
dant along  glacial  streams  in  that  area  and  that  it  formed,  both 
raw  and  cooked,  an  important  part  of  the  diet  of  native  Indians. 
Considered  fair  to  good  elk  and  deer  feed  in  spring  and  summer ; 
noted  sometimes  to  be  nibbled  by  sheep.  Occasionally  used  by  na- 
tives and  others  as  a  potherb. 

3.  Chamisso  Indianlettuce  [Mowfia  chamissoi  (Ledebour)  Tide- 
strom,  syns.,  M.  chamissonis  (Ledeb.)  Greene,  Claytonia  chaynissoi 
Ledeb.,  Crunocallis  chamissonis  (Ledeb.)  Rydb.]  is  a  succulent 
herb  perennial  by  stolons  or  running  rootstocks  that  bear  bulblets 
at  the  ends  of  short  branches  or  in  the  axils  of  the  root  branches. 
The  slender,  weak,  leafy  stems  root  at  the  joints  where  they  may 
touch  the  ground  and  are  2  to  13  inches  long.  The  delicate  long- 
stalked  flowers  vary  in  color  from  pale  rose  or  pink  to  white.  The 
plant  occurs  in  subalpine  or  cool  swamps  from  Alaska  to  Minne- 
sota, New  Mexico,  and  California.  Palatability  very  low  to  fair. 
Reported  to  be  nilDbled  sometimes  by  cattle.  It  is  named  for  the 
famous  German  poet,  botanist,  and  explorer,  Adelbert  von  Cha- 
misso (1781-1838). 

4.  Lineleaf  Indianlettuce  [Montia  linearis  (Dougl.)  Greene,  syns. 
Claytonia  linearis  Dougl.,  Montiastrum  lineare  (Dougl.)  Rydb.] 
grows  in  moist  places  in  the  mountains  from  British  Columbia  to 
Montana,  Nevada,  and  California.  It  is  a  leafy-stemmed  annual 
with  fibrous  roots;  alternate,  very  narrow  leaves,  and  1-sided 
racemes  of  long-stalked  white  flowers.  It  is  too  local,  small  and 
scanty  in  stand  to  have  any  special  economic  significance,  though 
sometimes  cropped  a  little  by  livestock  in  the  forepart  of  the  season 
before  it  dries  up  and  blows  away. 

5.  Minerslettuce  IMontia  perfolinta  (Donn)  Howell,  syns.  Clay- 
tonia perfoliata  Donn,  Limnia  perfoliata  (Donn)  Haw.],  an  often 
reddish  annual,  grows  in  more  or  less  shaded  sites  up  to  the 
ponderosa  pine  belt,  from  British  Columbia  to  the  Dakotas,  Ari- 
zona, and  (California,  and  Lower  California.  It  has  been  reported 
from  Colorado,  but  that  is  doubtful.  The  most  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  the  plant  is  a  pair  of  stem  leaves  that  are  united  into  a 
rounded  disklike  appendage  below  the  inflorescence.  Its  palata- 
bility has  been  reported  as  low  or  negligible.  The  plant  is  in  com- 
mon local  use  as  a  potherb. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  121 

Portulaca  (Portulaca) 

About  seven  species  of  portulaca  occur  on  the  western  range. 
They  are  annual  or  perennial,  often  succulent  and  diffusely 
branched  herbs,  with  opposite  or  alternate,  cylindrical  or  flattened 
leaves.  The  flowers,  sometimes  brightly  colored,  have  2  sepals,  4 
to  6  petals,  8  to  numerous  stamens,  a  partly  inferior  ovary,  and 
3  to  8  styles.  The  fruit  is  a  1-celled  capsule,  opening  by  a  hori- 
zontal lid  (circumscissile),  with  kidney-shaped  seeds.  Common 
portulaca  (P.  grandiflora  Hook.)?  native  to  southern  Brazil  and 
Argentina,  is  a  familiar  ornamental  annual. 

The  commonest  range  species  is  perhaps  purslane,  or  pusley 
(Portulaca  oleracea  L.),  a  prostrate-spreading,  freely  branching- 
succulent  annual  with  a  deep  central  root.  The  origin  of  this 
plant  is  controversial,  but  it  probably  originally  was  Asiatic.  It  is 
now  almost  cosmopolitan,  especially  in  the  warmer  parts  of  both 
hemispheres.  The  small  yellow  flowers  open  in  bright  sunshine 
for  a  few  hours  only  in  the  morning ;  the  seeds  are  finely  wrinkled 
and  warty.  The  plant  is  a  typical  ruderal,  growing  in  fields,  waste 
places,  along  roadsides,  etc.  It  will  endure  considerable  drought 
and  a  dry  soil  but  flourishes  in  the  richer,  medium  moist  situations 
where  it  may  attain  very  large  size. 

The  forage  value  of  purslane  varies  greatly  with  sites  and  as- 
sociates. On  some  of  the  more  southern  ranges  it  is  a  valuable 
forage.  Thornber  (201)  speaks  well  of  it  on  summer  Arizona 
ranges.  However,  Kearney  and  Peebles  (109)  state  that  the  species 
is  rare  in  Arizona  and  it  doubtless  is  frequently  confused  there 
with  the  closely  related  native  Southwestern  purslane  (Portulaca 
retusa  Engelm.),  which  ranges  from  Missouri  and  Arkansas  to 
Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  Arizona,  and  has  notched  leaves,  blunt  (in- 
stead of  sharp  pointed)  sepals,  3  or  4  (instead  of  5  to  7)  styles, 
and  sharp  conical  projections  on  the  seeds.  It  is  considered  good 
summer  cattle  feed  on  the  Jornada  Experimental  Range  (south- 
western New  Mexico) . 

Bentley  (21)  says  that  purslane  "grows  in  every  county  in 
central  Texas  and  is  known  locally  as  'hog  pusley'.  *  *  *  It  stands 
dry  weather  well,  and  no  matter  how  dry  the  grasses  and  other 
weeds  may  be  its  fleshy  leaves  and  stems  are  abundantly  in  evi- 
dence. There  is  no  doubt  as  to  its  value  as  a  forage  plant.  Hogs 
will  fatten  on  it  and  sheep  are  fond  of  it.  Cattle  do  not  appear  to 
care  for  it  particularly  except  in  the  droughty  autumn  months, 
when  its  succulent  herbage  is  greedily  sought  for."  Smith  (182) 
states:  "This  well-known  weed  is  of  considerable  value  as  an 
autumn  forage  plant  in  the  South  and  Southwest.  The  fleshy 
leaves  and  stems  are  put  forth  in  great  abundance  during  the 
hottest  and  driest  weather  and  it  is  hard  to  kill.  The  same  qualities 
which  make  it  a  vile  pest  in  our  gardens  and  fields  cause  it  to  be 
highly  esteemed  by  sheepherders  and  cattlemen  in  years  of 
drought." 

Death  of  both  sheep  and  cattle  have  been  reported  to  occur  in 
eastern  Arizona  from  bloat  due  to  excessive  use  of  purslane.   The 


122  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

plant  is  a  familiar  and  often  pestiferous  weed  in  gardens  and  cul- 
tivated ground.  It  is  a  popular  local  potherb — to  which  the  scien- 
tific name  oleracea  attests — and,  in  fact,  cultivated  horticultural 
varieties  of  it  exist. 

Shaggy  portulaca  (Portulaca  pilosa  L.),  sometimes  called  "jump- 
up-and-kiss-me,"  is  an  annual  (sometimes  longer  lived)  with  cylin- 
drical leaves  with  shaggy  axils,' and  small  or  medium-sized  pink  or 
purplish  flowers.  It  ranges  chiefly  in  sandy  sites  from  Georgia 
and  Florida  west  to  Missouri,  Texas,  and  New  Mexico,  and  south 
into  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  Central  and  South  America.  It  is 
reported  as  fairly  good  sheep  feed  in  southwestern  New  Mexico. 

A  somewhat  woody  species,  shrubby  portulaca  (Portulaca  suf- 
jrutescens  Engelm.),  with  a  long  woody  thickened  taproot,  slender 
pale  green  stems,  small  leaves,  and  copper-colored  flowers,  is  found 
from  Arkansas  and  Texas  to  Arizona  and  northern  Mexico.  Kear- 
ney and  Peebles  (109)  report  it  as  "Arizona's  showiest  species" 
of  the  genus.  It  is  reported  as  fair  spring  cattle  feed  in  southern 
New  Mexico. 

Pussypaws  (S  Prague  a) 

This  genus  of  small  to  medium-sized  rosette  plants  commem- 
orates Isaac  Sprague  (1811-95)  the  well-known  Massachusetts 
botanical  artist  who  collaborated  with  Asa  Gray  and  companion  of 
Audubon  on  his  1840  expedition  to  the  Upper  Missouri.  The  in- 
florescence, roughly  resembling  a  cat's  paw,  is  in  dense  scorpioid 
spikes  clustered  in  umbels  or  heads.  The  2  rounded  sepals  are  thin 
and  membranous,  persistent  and  more  or  less  fused ;  petals  4 ;  sta- 
mens 3 ;  styles  2 ;  fruiting  capsules  2  valved,  with  black  shiny  seeds. 

Of  about  three  valid  range  species,  the  best-known  is  common 
pussypaws  {Spraguea  nmhellata  Torr.,  syns.  Calpytridium  nudum 
Greene,  S.  nuda  (Greene)  Howell].  It  ranges  from  Washington  and 
Idaho  to  the  Yellowstone  Park  region  of  southwest  Montana  and 
northwest  Wyoming,  to  Nevada  and  California.  It  is  a  biennial  or 
sometimes  apparently  annual  or  perennial,  with  a  fleshy,  somewhat 
thickened,  spindle-shaped  taproot;  the  often  reddish  stems  are 
from  2  to  12  inches  high.  The  fleshy  leaves  are  mostly  in  a  dense 
basal  rosette,  1  to  4  inches  long  and  spatula  shaped.  The  white  or 
somewhat  rose-colored  flowers  are  in  an  involucred  umbrella- 
shaped  cluster. 

Common  pussypaws  usually  grows  in  sandy,  gravelly,  rocky,  or 
other  well-drained  sites  between  elevations  of  about  3,000  and 
]  0,000  feet.  It  is  often  regarded  as  a  good  sheep  weed.  However, 
California  sheepmen  have  reported  that  sheep  occasionally  die 
from  eating  its  flower  heads ;  the  flower  heads  become  cottony  and 
impacted  in  the  sheep's  stomach.  It  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  an 
ornamental  for  rockeries  and  edging. 

Fameflower  (Talinum) 

Talinum,  a  name  supposedly  of  aboriginal  origin,  has  about  14 
range  species ;  they  are  perennial  herbs  or  somewhat  undershrubby, 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  123 

often  with  rootstocks  or  fleshy  roots.  The  often  cylindrical  (terete) 
leaves  are  alternate  or  nearly  opposite.  The  flowers  are  from  the 
leaf  axils  or  in  terminal  cymes,  with  2  membranous  deciduous 
sepals ;  5  or  more  soon-withering  petals ;  3  more  or  less  united 
styles ;  5  or  more  stamens,  and  a  1-celled,  3-valved,  parchmentlike 
fruiting  capsule  containing  flattened,  shiny,  kidney-shaped  seeds. 
Some  of  the  native  species,  such  as  the  New  Mexican  T.  pulchellum 
Wool.  &  Standi.,  are  distinctly  ornamental  and  worthy  of 
cultivation. 

Orange  fanieflower  (Talinum  aurantiacum  Engelni.),  with 
spreading  stems  and  axillary  orange-colored  flowers,  ranging  from 
western  Texas  to  Arizona,  is  ordinarily  of  little  or  no  importance 
for  grazing.  One  Forest  Service  employee  reported  it  from  south- 
western Arizona  as  a  secondary  plant  for  hogs  and  cattle  during 
the  summer  months ;  he  added :  "It  occurs  in  scattering  stands, 
although  thick  in  swales  or  lands  subject  to  flooding.  Grows  to  8 
inches  high,  then  falls  over,  lies  along  the  ground,  then  spreads 
out  and  grows  about  3  or  4  inches  longer." 

Narrow  leaf  fameflower  [Talinum  angustissimum  (A.  Gray) 
Wool.  &  Standi.]  is  very  closely  related  to  T.  aurantiacum.  It  has 
the  same  range  but  is  more  erect  and  fleshy,  larger  and  stouter, 
with  narrower  leaves,  and  larger  yellow  flowers.  Bailey  (11) 
states  that  this  plant  is  an  important  food  for  jack  rabbits  and 
other  rodents  in  desert  areas,  furnishing  them  with  a  needed 
source  of  water. 

PINK  FAMILY  (GARYOPHYLLACEAE) 

This  is  a  medium  large  family,  which,  omitting  the  whitlow- 
wort  family  (Illecebraceae,  or  Corrigiolaceae)  united  by  some 
botanists  with  it,  is  represented  in  the  western  range  area  by 
about  19  genera  and  180  species.  It  consists  of  annual  or  perennial 
herbs — or  some  species  might  be  denominated  diminutive  under- 
shrubs — with  opposite  leaves  (or,  in  a  few  cases,  whorled  or  with 
the  uppermost  leaves  alternate),  the  leaves  often  partly  united  at 
base;  the  stems  are  often  swollen  at  the  joints.  The  flowers  have 
their  parts  in  5's  or  4's,  with  a  persistent  calyx,  stamens  up  to  10, 
and  2  to  5  styles  stigmatic  on  the  inner  side.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule. 

Because  of  the  attractiveness  of  the  flowers  of  many  species  in 
this  family,  a  large  number  of  them  are  in  ornamental  cultivation. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  pink  genus  (Dianthus) — especially 
carnation,  or  clove  pink  (D.  caryophylliis  L.)  and  sweetwilliani  (D. 
barbatus  L.);  also  babysbreath  (Gypsophila  paniculata  L.).  The 
range  importance  of  the  family  largely  rests  on  the  number  and 
wide  distribution  of  many  of  these  (often  small)  plants,  the  pala- 
tability  of  some  of  them,  and  the  fact  that  a  few  species  are 
poisonous. 

Common  corncockle  (Agrostemma  githago  L.),  a  winter  annual 
or  biennial  native  to  the  Old  World  is  now  widely  naturalized  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  especially  in  the  more  northern 
parts  of  the  former  and  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  latter.  Be- 


124  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

cause  of  the  difficulty  of  screening  the  seeds  from  wheat,  it  is 
especially  prevalent  in  wheat  and  other  grainfields  and  from  that 
source  has  invaded  roadsides,  abandoned  fields,  and  the  like. 

The  stems  of  common  corncockle  are  1  to  SU?  feet  tall,  with 
opposite  narrow  leaves  2  to  4  inches  long,  terminal  solitary  long- 
stalked  flowers  of  greatly  varying  size,  the  calyx  with  a  well- 
marked  tube  and  5  long  lobes  or  teeth  two  or  three  times  longer 
than  the  tube ;  5  purple,  red  or  sometimes  white  petals ;  10  stamens, 
and  5  styles  alternating  with  the  calyx  lobes.  The  seeds  are  num- 
erous, rough,  rather  large  and  black.  While  hardly  attractive  to 
grazing  livestock,  the  plants  are  occasionally  observed  to  be  nibbled 
and  apparently  with  impunity. 

The  chief  economic  interest  in  the  plant  is  the  seeds  which  are 
reported  to  cause  annual  losses  of  millions  of  dollars  to  wheat- 
growers.  Wheat  flour  containing  significant  amounts  of  corn- 
cockle seed  is  unfit  for  human  consumption  and  dangerous.  The 
seeds  contain  a  saponin  (substance  causing  sudsy  froth  in  water) 
named  githagin,  and  probably  toxic  alkaloids  as  well.  They  are 
highly  poisonous  to  chickens,  ducks,  and  geese,  (123,  HI,  151). 

Sandwort  (Arenaria,  syn.  Alsinopsis) 

The  genus  Arenaria^^  is  represented  in  the  western  range  area  by 
about  44  species.  Sandworts  are  small,  mostly  tufted  perennial  or 
sometimes  annual  herbs,  with  opposite  stalkless  slender  leaves; 
small,  usually  white  flowers  borne  in  open  or  contracted  terminal 
clusters  (cymosely  or  capitate)  or  rarely  solitary  in  the  leaf  axils. 
There  are  5  sepals  and  5  (rarely  absent)  untoothed  or  apex-notched 
petals;  usually  3  (2  to  5)  styles  opposite  the  sepals;  10  stamens; 
a  rounded  or  oblong  fruiting  capsule  opening  by  valves  or  teeth  as 
many  or  twice  as  many  as  the  styles,  and  numerous  small  seeds. 
Some  of  the  species  when  not  in  flower  suggest,  with  their  dense 
clusters  of  fine  leaves,  colonies  of  pine  seedlings.  Some  botanists 
prefer  to  place  those  species  with  three-toothed  capsules  in  a 
separate  genus,  Minuartia. 

Sandworts,  widely  distributed  throughout  the  West,  are  most 
common  on  rather  dry,  sandy,  or  gravelly  soils  but  are  also  found 
on  moderately  moist,  rich  loams.  Common  on  the  western  ranges, 
they  occur  from  the  plains  and  foothills  to  well  above  timberline 
in  the  mountains  but,  as  a  rule,  are  scattered  among  other  plants 
and  not  abundant  in  any  one  place.  As  a  class,  they  average  from 
poor  to  fair  in  palatabiiity  for  all  classes  of  livestock,  although  in 
Utah,  Nevada,  southern  Idaho,  California,  and  the  Northwest  they 
are  generally  considered  from  practically  worthless  to,  at  best, 
poor  forage.  The  palatabiiity  of  the  sandworts  undoubtedly  varies 


'"The  generic  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  arenarius  (belonging  to  sand) 
and  refers  to  the  characteristic  habitat  of  many  of  the  species.  The  Latin 
word  arena  means  sand,  or  figuratively,  since  the  Romans  sprinkled  sand  on 
the  fields  used  for  gladiatorial  contests  to  absorb  the  bbod,  the  word  came  to 
mean  any  place  of  combat.  The  common  name,  sandwort,  also  implies  a  plant 
or  weed  of  sandy  places,  wort  being  a  Middle  English  word  (Anglo-Saxon 
ivyrt)  meaning  herb. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  125 

not  only  for  the  different  species  but  also  for  the  same  species  in 
different  localities  and  at  different  times  of  the  year.  In  general, 
the  palatability  is  highest  in  spring  and  in  localities  where  the 
plants  are  most  abundant. 

Prickly  sandwort  (Areiiaria  aculeata  S.  Wats.)  ranges  in  scab- 
lands  and  dry  sandy  or  gravelly  sites  from  middle  to  high  elevations 
(up  to  about  9,000  feet  in  Arizona),  from  northeastern  Oregon 
and  Idaho  to  Utah,  northwestern  New  Mexico,  central  Arizona, 
Nevada,  and  California  (east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada).  It  is  a  loosely 
or  somewhat  densely  matted  perennial,  more  or  less  glandular- 
hairy  above,  often  with  woody  crown  and  roots ;  rather  slim  flow- 
ering stems  4  to  8  inches  high ;  fine,  stiff,  rigid,  prickletipped 
leaves  somewhat  bluish  when  young,  spreading  and  darker  in  age ; 
the  shallowly  notched  petals  are  about  half  again  as  long  as  the 
sepals  and,  at  maturity,  the  fruiting  capsules  are  about  twice  as 
long  as  the  sepals.  As  a  rule  this  plant  is  negligible  for  forage  but 
in  some  places  it  has  been  observed  to  be  limitedly  grazed  by  sheep. 

Closely  related  to  prickly  sandwort  is  Uinta  sandwort  \_Arenaria 
uintahensis  A.  Nels.,  syn.  A.  acideafa  var.  uintahensis  (A.  Nels.) 
Peck].  It  differs  chiefly  in  that  it  is  smoother  and  less  glandular 
than  prickly  sandwort,  and  has  softer,  less  rigid  and  non-prickle- 
tipped  foliage,  and  fruit  hardly  longer  than  the  persistent  sepals. 
Its  range  is  from  southeastern  Oregon,  Idaho,  and  western  Montana 
south  to  Colorado  and  Utah.  Its  forage  value  is,  as  a  rule,  worth- 
less or  low. 

Ballhead  sandwort  (Arenaria  congesta  Nutt.)  (fig.  28)  is  dis- 
tributed, chiefly  in  the  mountains,  from  eastern  Washington  to 
Montana  and  south  to  Colorado  and  central  California,  occurring 
mostly  between  about  5,000  and  10,000  feet,  although  sometimes 
found  at  both  lower  and  higher  altitudes.  It  grows  on  a  wide 
variety  of  soils  from  deep,  rich,  moist  loams  to  dry  gravels,  in 
grass,  weed,  sagebrush,  aspen,  ponderosa  pine,  lodgepole  pine, 
and  other  vegetal  types.  Although  a  common  plant  on  many 
western  ranges,  it  is  not,  as  a  rule,  locally  abundant  but  usually 
occurs  scatteringly  in  mixture  with  other  plants. 

The  light-green,  narrow,  rigid  leaves  are  produced  mostly  at  the 
base,  while  the  stems  bear  two  to  four  pairs  of  leaves  rather  dis- 
tantly spaced,  the  uppermost  pair  being  much  smaller  than  the 
others.  The  flowers  typically  are  congested  into  (mostly  terminal) 
headlike  clusters  subtended  by  small,  papery-margined  bracts. 
The  five  sepals  are  thin,  dry  and  papery  except  for  the  prominent 
midvein  and  are  conspicuously  shorter  than  the  petals.  A  form 
with  woody  crown  and  roots  and  a  more  open  inflorescence  has 
been  described  as  Arenaria  congesta  var.  suffrutescens  Robinson. 

The  palatability  of  ballhead  sandwort  varies  considerably,  es- 
pecially in  different  localities  and  with  the  season  of  the  year,  and 
appears  to  be  highest  in  those  localities  where  it  occurs  most  abun- 
dantly. In  Montana,  while  the  gro\\i:h  is  young  and  tender,  the 
general  palatability  of  this  species  is  fairly  good  for  cattle  and 
good  for  sheep ;  in  Wyoming  and  Colorado  it  is  fairly  good  for 
cattle  but  only  fair  for  sheep ;  in  the  Southwest,  only  fair  for  both 


126  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


^ 


F-487816 

Figure  28. — Ballhead  sandwort   (Are- 
nairiu  congesta  Nutt.). 


classes  of  livestock;  in  California  and  the  Northwest,  poor  for 
sheep  and  practically  worthless  for  cattle ;  and,  in  Utah,  southern 
Idaho,  and  Nevada,  it  is  usually  worthless.  It  has  been  observed 
to  be  grazed  by  mountain  sheep  at  high  elevations  on  the  Routt 
National  Forest  (Colorado),  and  by  elk  in  winter  on  the  Teton 
National  Forest  (Wyoming). 

Very  close  botanically  to  ballhead  sandwort  is  Burke  sandwort 
\_Arenaria  burkei  Howell,  syns.  A.  congesta  var.  subcongesta  S. 
Wats.,  A.  fendl'ep  var.  subcongesta  S.  Wats.,  A.  subcongesta  (S. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  127 

Wats.)  Rydb.  and,  probably,  A.  glabrescens  (S.  Wats.)  Piper]. 2" 
It  has  a  wider  range  than  A.  cougesta — from  southern  British 
Columbia  and  Alberta  to  Montana,  western  Colorado  (doubtfully 
in  New  Mexico),  Arizona,  and  California.  It  is  likely  that  reports 
of  A.  cougesta  from  Arizona,  Alberta,  and  British  Columbia  ac- 
tually refer  to  A.  burkei. 

The  several  or  tufted  stems  of  Arenaria  burkei,  4  to  10  inches 
high,  come  from  a  more  or  less  woody  crown  and  root.  This  species 
chiefly  differs  from  A.  cougesta  in  the  almost  stalkless  flowers  oc- 
curring in  small  clusters  (glomeniles)  at  the  ends  of  the  inflores- 
cence branches  in  an  umbellike  arrangement  and  in  the  sharp- 
tipped  or  tapered  sepals  that  are  almost  as  long  as  the  fruiting 
capsules.  It  occurs  in  rather  dry  sites  between  elevations  of  about 
4,000  and  7,500  feet.  Its  forage  value  is  as  variable  as  that  of  A. 
congesta,  depending  on  location,  abundance,  associates,  etc. ;  gen- 
erally it  varies  from  worthless  to  poor  but  its  palatability  has  been 
rated  as  fair  to  good  for  different  kinds  of  livestock  on  certain 
national-forest  areas  in  Montana. 

Fendler  sandwort  {Arenaria  fendleri  A.  Gray)^!  is  a  tufted  but 
usually  not  densely  matted  perennial,  the  slim  stems  4  to  8  inches 
high;  the  inflorescence  is  open,  more  or  less  glandular-hairy;  the 
petals  are  only  slightly  longer  than  the  sepals.  The  fine  basal 
leaves,  sometimes  4  inches  long,  often  have  a  grasslike  appearance. 
This  species  occurs  in  aspen  and  spruce  types  to  above  timberline 
at  alpine  elevations  and  has  been  collected  as  a  pygmy  undershrub 
at  12,000  feet  on  San  Francisco  Peaks,  Ariz.  It  is  one  of  the  more 
palatable  members  of  the  genus,  although  frequently  regarded  as 
worthless  to  poor  as  forage. 

Somewhat  closely  related  to  Fendler  sandwort  is  fescue  sand- 
wort [Arenaria  formosa  Fisch.,  syn.  "A.  capillaris"  of  U.S.  authors, 
not  Poir.] — so-called  because  some  people  think  it  resembles  a 
small,  fine-leaved  fescue  (formosa,  "pretty,"  refers  to  the  rather  at- 
tractive little  flowers).  Fescue  sandwort  ranges  in  alpine  meadows 
and  other  higher  elevations  from  British  Columbia  and  Alberta 
to  western  Montana,  northern  and  western  Wyoming,  Utah,  Ne- 
vada, and  California.  It  apparently  is  absent  from  Colorado  and 
Arizona.  As  indicated,  this  is  the  A.  capillaris  Poir.  of  some  of  our 
manuals,  but  that  species  was  described  from  Siberia  and  should 
probably  be  considered  distinct  from  our  west-American  one. 

The  slim  erect  stems,  3  to  12  inches  high,  are  usually  several  or 
tufted  from  a  creeping  rootstock  or  with  somewhat  woody  crown 
branches.  The  almost  threadlike  leaves,  i/o  to  3  inches  long,  are 
rather  soft  and  usually  not  pungent,  or  sharp  tipped.  The  flowers 
are  few,  white,  in  open,  flat-topped  clusters,  the  sepals  minutely 
glandular-hairy,  broadly  oval  and  blunt  tipped,  about  half  as  long 

-"The  species  commemorates  Joseph  Burke,  A  British  naturalist  and  col- 
lector who  in  1844-46  explored  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Snake  River  country 
in  Idaho,  and  the  Toiyabe  Mountains  of  Nevada. 

-'One  of  the  numerous  plants  that  commemorate  Augustus  Fendler  (1813- 
83),  German-American  botanical  collector  who  was  with  the  United  States 
troops  who  took  Sanda  Fe,  N.  Mex.,  in  1846,  and  some  of  whose  Southwestern 
collections  were  the  basis  for  Asa  Gray's  book  Plantae  Fendlerianae. 


128  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

as  the  petals.  Ordinarily  this  plant  is  negligible  or  poor  as  forage. 
The  following  two  sandworts  are  small,  common,  often  densely 
tufted,  arctic-alpine  plants  of  practically  no  forage  significance : 

1.  Niittall  sandwort  (Arenaria  nuUallii  Pax),  ranging  from 
southeastern  British  Columbia  and  southern  Alberta  to  southwest- 
ern Idaho,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  northern  California.  Found  on  dry 
rocky  slopes  near  snow  on  the  highest  peaks  above  timberline, 
with  long  runners  or  sometimes  a  woody  taproot,  the  herbage 
glandular-hairy  throughout;  leaves  crowded,  somewhat  awllike, 
numerous,  crowded,  often  spreading,  l^  to  V^  ii^ch  long,  the  petals 
shorter  than  the  strongly  tapered,  1-nerved  (or  sometimes  indis- 
tinctly 3-nerved)  sepals,  which  are  longer  than  the  fruiting  cap- 
sules. Occasionally  observed,  nibbled  by  sheep  and  goats.  The 
species  is  named  for  Thomas  Nuttall  (1786-1859),  well-known 
British-American  naturalist  and  explorer  of  the  West. 

2.  Siberian  sandwort  (Arenaria  sajanensis  Willd.)22  originally 
known  from  the  Saiansk  Mountains,  southwest  of  Lake  Baikal, 
Siberia,  with  about  the  same  American  range  as  Nuttall  sandwort 
but  occurring  farther  south  into  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada  of  California  and  farther  east  into  western  Mon- 
tana and  Colorado.  It  differs  from  Nuttall  sandwort  in  often 
being  more  prostrate-trailing  and  mosslike,  the  stems  a  bit  more 
slender,  less  than  1/2  to  21/2  inches  high,  the  oblong  sepals  rounded 
at  the  tip,  distinctly  3  nerved,  and  much  shorter  than  the  petals. 

Closely  related  to  the  genus  Arenaria  and  by  some  conservative 
botanists  regarded  as  subgenera  or  sections  of  it  are  Honkenya 
and  Moehringia. 

Sea-purslane  [Honkenya  peploides  (L.)  Ehrh.,  syns.  Ammodenia 
IJeploides  L.,  Arenaria  peploides  (L.)  A.  Gray]  is  a  succulent  mari- 
time plant  inhabiting  sea  beaches  and  dunes  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic  and  in  northern  areas  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  Because 
of  its  variability  a  number  of  varieties  and  subspecies  and  even 
species  of  it  have  been  proposed  and  some  authors  prefer  to  put 
;Gur  Pacific  plant,  ranging  from  Alaska  to  California  into  a  distinct 
species  H.  oblongifolia  Torr.  &  Gray  [syns.  Ammodenia  oblongi- 
folia  (Torr.  &  Gray)  Rydb.,  H.  peploides  var.  oblongifolia  (Torr. 
&  Gray)  Wight].  C^leason  (81)  says  the  northeastern  plant  is  ssp. 
robusta  (Fernald)  Hulten  of  H.  peploides,  while  Abrams'  (2,  v.  2) 
lists  this  plant  under  the  name  H.  peploides  var.  major  Hook.  The 
genus  commemorates  Gerhart  August  Honckeny  (1724-1805),  a 
German  botanist. 

The  plant  is  locally  very  common,  forming  dense  clumps,  the 
stems  often  purplish  at  the  top.  It  is  perennial  from  stolons,  with 
opposite  thick  somewhat  clasping  elliptic,  oblong,  obovate,  or 
ovate-lance-shaped  leaves ;  the  flowers  have  a  conspicuous  8-  to 
10-lobed  disk,  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  genus.    Fernald  and 

22The  nomenclature  of  this  plant  is  in  controversy.  Some  botanists  restrict 
sajanensis  to  Siberia  and  call  our  American  plant  A.  ohtnsiloha  (Rydb.) 
Fernald.  Rydberg  {172)  recorded  that  American  "saja7ienfiis"  is  composed  of 
Arenaria  laricifolia  L.,  A.  viarcescens  Rydb.,  and  Alsinopsis  obtusiloba.  Rydb. 
[syns.  Arenaria  obtiisa  Torr.  (1827)  not  All.  {11S5) ,  Arenaria  biflora  S.Wats. 
(1878)  not  L.  1767)]. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  129 

Kinsey  (70)  mention  that  the  plant  is  sometimes  made  into  pickles 
and  used  as  a  salad  plant  or  potherb,  and  is  made  into  a  beverage 
in  Iceland.  Perhaps  the  species  should  not  be  listed  as  a  range 
plant  but  its  salty  taste  attracts  livestock  and  other  herbivorous 
animals  and  Fernald  and  Kinsey  cite  Harold  St.  John  to  the  effect 
that  it  is  "the  choicest  fodder  *  *  *  of  wild  ponies"  roaming  Sable 
Island  off  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia. 

There  are  two  range  species  of  moehringia  (Moehringia),  deli- 
cate, slender-stemmed,  sometimes  almost  vinelike  herbs  perennial 
from  slender  rootstocks,  and  small  white  flowers  solitary  or  in  few- 
flowered  clusters.  The  habit  is  different  from  that  of  the  typically 
densely  tufted  sandworts,  the  leaves  are  broader  and  larger,  the 
fruiting  capsules  have  only  a  few  seeds  and  these  possess  a  broad 
papery  growth  (strophiole)  around  the  hilum.  The  genus  com- 
memorates Paul  Heinrich  Gerhard  Moehring,  an  18th  century 
botanist  of  Danzig,  Germany. 

Bluntleaf  moehringia  IMoehringia  lateriflora  (L.)  Fenzl,  syn. 
Arenaria  Jatenjiora  L.]  has  oblong-oval,  blunt-tipped  leaves  and 
nontapered  sepals,  the  valves  of  the  fruit  2  cleft.  It  is  found  in 
moist,  often  shaded  sites  from  Alaska  to  Oregon,  in  the  interior 
mountains  to  Utah  and  New  Mexico  and  east  to  Missouri,  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  Jersey,  Newfoundland,  and  Labrador ;  also  in  north- 
ern Europe  and  Asia.  Longleaf  moehringia  [M.  macrophylla 
(Hook.)  Torr.,  syn.  Arenaria  macrophylla  Hook.]  ranges  in  simi- 
lar sites  from  Labrador  and  Quebec  to  British  Columbia,  south  to 
the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California,  New  Mexico,  Minnesota,  New 
York,  and  New  England.  It  has  lance-shaped  to  linear-lance-shaped, 
tapering  leaves,  narrower  and  somewhat  longer  than  those  of  M. 
lateriflora,  tapered  sepals  and  somewhat  angled  stems.  The  forage 
value  of  these  plants  varies  from  worthless  to  fair,  depending  on 
local  conditions.  It  is  more  palatable  to  sheep  and  goats  than  to 
horses  and  cattle  and,  when  grazed  at  all,  chiefly  in  spring  and 
early  summer.  These  species  are  seldom  abundant  in  any  one 
place,  and  their  palatability  and  amount  of  herbage  are  insufficient 
to  make  the  plants  important. 

Gerastium  (Cerastium) 

A  genus  of  more  or  less  hairy  and  sometimes  sticky  annual  or 
perennial  herbs,  with  opposite  stipule-less  leaves,  and  white  flow- 
ers with  5  sepals,  5  petals  (mostly  notched  or  2  cleft  at  the  tip), 
usually  10  stamens,  and  5  (occasionally  only  3  or  4)  styles.  There 
are  perhaps  as  many  as  20  range  species,  the  number  depending 
on  the  viewpoint  of  the  individual  botanist.  Linnaeus  appears  to 
have  derived  the  generic  name  from  Greek  Kepao-ns (horned  serpent) 
reflected  in  the  generic  name  Cerastes  for  the  horned  vipers  of  the 
Old  World.  The  name  Cerastium,  therefore,  alludes  to  the  peculiar 
fruiting  capsules  of  the  genus,  which  are  cylindric,  thin,  and 
usually  with  a  curved,  somewhat  hornlike  tip  opening  by  10  short 
teeth. 

A  few  species  are  in  ornamental  cultivation  for  rockeries  and 
edging,  such  as  snow-in-suminer  (Cerastium  tomentosum  L.).  Mem- 


130  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

bers  of  this  genus  are  often  called  "chickweed"  [a  name  better 
restricted  to  5fe//a?-ia  media  (L.)  Cirillo]  "mouse-ear,"  "mouse-ear 
chickweed,"  and  "powderhorn."  Probably  the  commonest  range 
species  are:  starry  cerastium  (C.  arvense  L.),  Bering  cerastium  (C. 
beeringianum  Cham.  &  Schlecht.),  plains  cerastium  (C.  campestre 
Greene),  nodding  cerastium  (C.  nutans  Raf.),  Rocky  Mountain 
cerastium  (C  scopuloruni  Greene),  common  cerastium  (C.  stric- 
turn  L.),  and  sticky  cerastium  (C  viscosum  L.).  However,  some 
botanists  regard  C.  campestre  and  C.  scopulorum  as  being  mere 
forms  or  variations  of  C.  arvense  and  others  think  that  typical  C. 
strict II m  should  be  confined  to  the  Old  World  or  at  least  that  United 
States  material  so  called  is  also  referable  to  forms  of  C.  arvense. 

Cerastiums  vary  in  palatability  from  worthless  or  low  to  oc- 
casionally fair  or  even  fairly  good,  especially  for  sheep  and  goats, 
depending  on  abundance  and  presence  or  absence  of  more  palatable 
associates.  They  are,  in  the  main,  small  plants,  producing  only  a 
limited  amount  of  herbage.  Starry  cerastium  is  reasonably  typical 
of  the  genus  as  a  whole. 

Starry  cerastium  (Cerastium  arvense  L.)  occurs  in  fields  and,  in 
the  mountains,  in  valleys  and  also  dry  rocky  places  up  to  timber- 
line,  ranging  from  Labrador  to  Alaska  and  south  to  California, 
northern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  Missouri,  and  Georgia;  also 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  a  tufted  perennial,  the  stems  erect  or 
ascending,  4  to  12  inches  high,  the  base  often  matted  and  leafy, 
with  slender  and  often  somewhat  woody  rootstocks.  The  leaves  are 
narrow,  linear  or  linear  lance  shaped,  and  sharp  pointed;  often 
there  are  clusters  of  leaves  in  the  lower  leaf  axils.  The  white  flow- 
ers are  in  terminal  clusters,  rather  numerous,  appearing  April 
to  July,  the  petals  twice  as  long  as  the  sepals.  In  bloom  the  plant 
is  rather  showy  and  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  an  ornamental.  It 
is  grazed  moderately  by  sheep  in  some  areas  but  is  considered 
worthless  in  others. 

Deptford  pink  (Dianthus  armeria  L.),  sometimes  called  "grass 
pink,"  a  native  of  Europe,  widely  naturalized  in  the  United  States, 
is  the  only  range  species  of  this  genus,  which  is  famous  for  the 
number  of  its  cultivated  species,  especially  the  carnation,  or  clove 
pink  (D.  caryophyllus  L.).  Deptford  pink  is  an  erect,  fine-hairy 
annual  6  to  18  inches  high,  with  opposite  linear  erect  or  ascending 
leaves,  and  small  pink,  light-spotted  flowers  solitary  or  in  terminal 
few-flowered  clusters ;  the  cylindrical  calyx  has  a  distinct  tubular 
base,  5  toothed  at  the  tip ;  there  are  2  styles.  The  plant  is  of  no 
forage  importance.  Rather  closely  related  botanically  to  Dianthus 
are  three  other  genera  (Saponaria,  Vaccaria,  and  Velezia),  species 
of  which,  introduced  from  the  Old  World,  have  become  local  mem- 
bers of  the  western  range  flora. 

Bouncingbet  (Saponaria  officinalis  L.)  perhaps  has  escaped 
from  old-fashioned  gardens.  It  is  a  smooth  stout  erect  perennial 
herb,  about  1  to  2  feet  high,  with  opposite  lance-shaped  to  oval 
leaves,  and  dense  terminal  clusters  of  showy  rose-colored  flowers, 
and  is  often  locally  common  along  roadsides  or  in  old  fields.  The 
whole  plant,  especially  the  roots,  contains  the  glucoside  saponin, 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  131 

which  makes  a  froth  in  water  and,  taken  internally,  may  cause  in- 
flammation of  the  digrestive  tract  and  destruction  of  the  red  cor- 
puscles of  the  blood  (123).  There  is  little,  if  any,  evidence  of  this 
plant's  being  grazed  by  domestic  livestock  and  no  case  of  poisoning 
of  range  animals  appears  to  be  known ;  however,  it  may  be  a  po- 
tential source  of  poisoning.  Pammel  (151)  reports  that  the  seeds 
are  supposed  to  be  poisonous  when  they  occur  in  wheat  screenings. 
The  plant  has  locally  been  used  as  a  soap  substitute  and  Pammel 
(151)  indicates  that  it  is  effective  in  removing  grease  spots  from 
wool. 

Cowcockle,  sometimes  called  cowherb  and  cow  soap  wort  \yac- 
caria  segetalis  (Neck.)  Garcke,  syns.  Saponaria  vaccaria  L.,  V. 
vaccaria  (L.)  Britton,  V.  vulgaris  Host],  introduced — chiefly  as  a 
weed  in  and  about  grainfields — is  a  smooth,  somewhat  bluish  an- 
nual with  erect  forking  stems  1  to  3  feet  high,  with  oval  or  lance- 
shaped  leaves  clasping  at  the  base,  and  pale  red  or  pink  flowers 
about  1/2  to  1  inch  across  in  loose  erect  clusters ;  there  are  10  sta- 
mens and  2  styles.  Each  of  the  rounded  fruiting  capsules  contains 
about  20  round,  hard,  dark-colored  seeds  somewhat  resembling 
small  shot.  Some  botanists  prefer  to  place  the  plant  in  the  soap- 
wort  genus  (Saponaria)  but  there  are  a  number  of  differences,  in- 
cluding the  flask-shaped,  strongly  5-angled  (winged  in  fruit)  calyx 
and  the  lack  of  appendages  at  the  base  of  the  petals  (found  in 
Saponaria). 

The  name  Vaccaria,  derived  from  Latin  vacca  (cow),  is  sup- 
posed to  indicate  a  fondness  for  it  by  cattle.  However,  the  plant 
is  not  known  to  have  poisoned  animals  under  range  conditions. 
The  seeds  contain  saponhi.  Chesnut  and  Wilcox  (37)  speak  of  the 
plant  being  a  noxious  weed  in  Montana  grainfields  and  that,  be- 
cause of  its  occurrence  in  spring  wheat,  it  is  often  called  "spring 
cockle";  that  chickens  and  horses  reject  screenings  containing 
cowcockle  seed  but  hogs  and  sheep  will  eat  it,  and  that  sickness  or 
death  can  be  induced  in  rabbits  by  forced  feeding  with  the  seeds. 

Stiff  velezia  (Velezia  rigida  L.),  introduced  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean region  in  dry  California  foothills,  is  a  bushy  little  annual, 
rigidly  branched  from  the  base,  4  to  16  inches  high,  with  small 
awllike  leaves,  and  small  narrow  flowers,  the  calyx  tube  and  fruit- 
ing capsules  narrowly  cylindrical,  the  petals  long  clawed  and  with 
small  blades.  Of  no  value  for  forage.  The  genus  commemorates 
Cristobal  Velez,  a  Spanish  colleague  of  the  18th  century  Swedish 
botanist,  Peter  Loefling. 

Drymary  (Drymaria) 

There  are  about  six  range  species  of  this  chiefly  Mexican  genus, 
sometimes  locally  called  "seccomaria."  They  are  small  bushy- 
branched  annuals,  with  slender  stems,  opposite  or  whorled  leaves, 
and  small  white  or  whitish  flowers.  There  are  typically  5  (some- 
times fewer)  sepals  and  petals,  the  petals  deeply  lobed  or  divided, 
1  style  and  usually  5  stamens.  The  fruit  is  a  small  capsule  splitting 
when  ripe  by  three  valves.  The  genus  is  greatly  in  need  of  compe- 
tent monographing.    Thus  far  only  one  species  has  assumed  any 


132  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

range  significance.  It  might  be  worth  noting  in  this  connection 
that  Dickson  (59)  stated  that  Dryinaria  cordata  on  a  tea  estate 
in  Uva,  Ceylon,  was  encouraged  as  a  ground  cover  to  prevent  ero- 
sion and  had  a  very  favorable  effect  for  3  or  4  years ;  after  that  it 
became  too  aggressive,  diminished  the  tea  yield  about  100  pounds 
per  acre,  and  had  to  be  eradicated. 

Thickleaf  dryniary  (Drymaria  pachyphylla  Wool.  &  Standi.)  (fig. 
29)  is  often  referred  to  D.  holosteoicles  Benth.,  which  is  typically  a 


F-315213 

Figure  29. — Thickleaf  drymary  {Dryviaria  pachyphylla  Woot.  &  Standi.). 


seashore  plant  growing  on  beaches  of  Lower  California  and  of  the 
western  coast  of  Sonora.  Brandegee  (30)  says  that  "D.  holoste- 
oides  is  annual,  low,  usually  prostrate-spreading,  somewhat  glau- 
cous, pubescent;  leaves  ovate,  cuneate  at  base,  thickish;  pedicels 
scarcely  equalling  the  leaves."  He  further  indicates  that  D.  crassi- 
folia  Benth.,  a  more  rounded,  more  bluish  and  perfectly  smooth 
plant  with  thicker  leaves  and  longer  flower  stalks  is  frequently 
confused  with  D.  holosteoides.  Little  (120)  although  (at  least 
temporarily)  holding  D.  pachyphylla  to  be  a  synonym  of  D.  holos- 
teoides, states  that  the  latter  has  "much  narrower,  acutish  leaves, 
puberulent  pedicels,  and  slightly  smaller  seeds." 

Thickleaf  drymary  ranges,  in  dry  adobe  soils  at  low  elevations, 
from  southwest  Texas  to  southern  New  Mexico  and  southeastern 
Arizona  and  south  into  Coahuila  and  Chihuahua.  The  herbage  is 
smooth  and  bluish  white  (glaucous)  ;  the  leaf  blades  are  thickish, 
ovate,  rhombic  or  broadly  elliptic  and  blunt  tipped;  the  flowers 
are  in  stalkless  or  nearly  stalkless  clusters  from  the  leaf  axils,  the 
sepals  ovate  and  blunt  or  slightly  pointed  (apiculate).   A  distinc- 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  133 

tive  feature  of  the  plant  is  the  purplish  juice  emanating  from  the 
green  capsules  and  unripe  seeds  when  squeezed  between  the  fingers. 
In  dry  weather  the  plant  may  be  prostrate  but  may  rise  up  after  a 
light  shower.  The  species  is  a  prolific  seeder;  Little  (120)  reports 
that  a  plant  4  inches  in  diameter  may  mature  250  capsules  con- 
taining about  3,750  seeds. 

While  thickleaf  drymary  is  small,  short  lived,  and  unpalatable  it 
is  aggressive  and,  when  good  feed  is  unavailable,  it  is  exceedingly 
dangerous  and  has  caused  heavy  losses  of  cattle  and,  in  some  cases, 
of  sheep  and  goats.  The  poisonous  principle,  still  unknown,  is  viru- 
lent, death  often  taking  place  in  a  few  hours,  nervousness  and 
bloody  discharges  being  among  the  symptoms.  Ares  (7)  reports 
that  hoeing  of  this  plant  by  local  stockmen  on  the  Jornada  Ex- 
perimental Range  (southwestern  New  Mexico)  reduced  cattle 
losses  from  91  in  the  period  1926-33  to  10  in  the  period  1934-40. 
This  pioneer  plant,  according  to  one  Forest  Service  employee  on 
the  Jornada  "represents  practically  the  only  early  weed  stage  on 
clay  soils  denuded  by  trampling  or  erosion,  and  any  measure  for 
its  permanent  control  must  be  based  upon  the  reestablishment  of 
a  higher  stage  in  the  series,  either  by  natural  revegetation,  or  by 
artificial  reseeding  of  pioneer  grasses."  There  is  now  considerable 
literature  for  this  species,  e.g.:  Mann  (128),  Lantow  (115), 
Mathews  (137),  and  Little  (119, 120). 

Holosteum  (Holosteiim  nmbeUatiim  L.)  is  a  small  tufted  annual, 
3  to  10  inches  high,  glandular-hairy  above  and  slightly  woolly  be- 
low, native  to  Europe  and  Asia  and  naturalized  in  this  country,  es- 
pecially in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coast  States.  The  oblong  leaves 
are  up  to  about  %  inch  long,  the  small  flowers  in  a  3-  to  8-flowered 
umbel,  the  individual  flower  stalks  (pedicels)  bent  down  (re flexed), 
the  5  petals  with  jagged-toothed  (erose)  margins — whence  one  of 
the  common  names,  "jagged  chickweed" ;  styles  3.  The  fruiting 
capsules  are  ovoid  cylindrical  with  6  recurved  teeth  at  the  tip.  It 
is  sometimes  nibbled  by  sheep  but  is  hardly  abundant  or  large 
enough  to  have  any  particular  range  significance.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  Greek  holosteon  (meaning  "all  bone"),  a  plant  name 
used  by  Dioscorides  and,  perhaps,  was  facetiously  transferred  to 
tliis  delicate  plant  by  Dillenius  and  Linnaeus. 

Rather  closely  related  to  Holosteton  is  the  pearlwort  genus  (Sa- 
gina),  represented  in  the  range  area  by  about  six  species.  Perhaps 
the  commonest  and  most  widespread  of  these  is  arctic  pearlwort 
[S.  saginoides  (L.)  Britton,  syn.  S.  linnaei  Presl],  in  the  arctic 
regions  of  both  hemispheres,  in  northern  Michigan,  and,  in  the 
West,  from  Alberta  and  British  Columbia  to  California,  (on  the 
highest  peaks  of)  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Colorado,  and 
Montana.  It  is  a  high-range,  small,  tufted  perennial,  1  to  4  inches 
high,  with  small  linear  leaves  less  than  1/2  inch  long,  5  petals 
shorter  than  the  sepals,  5  styles  alternating  with  the  sepals  and  of 
about  the  same  length,  and  ovoid-oblong  fruiting  capsules  splitting 
to  the  base  by  5  valves.  Forage  value,  negligible  or  low.  Western 
United  States  plants  of  this  species  are  often  referred  to  var. 
hesperia  Fernald. 


134  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Three  related  genera  of  very  minor  range  significance  are  Loef- 
Imgia,  Spercjnla,  and  Spergiilaria.  Loeflinjjia  (Loeflinfiia),  named 
for  Peter  Loefling,  an  18th  century  Swedish  naturalist,  is  repre- 
sented in  the  West  by  a  Texas,  a  Tehachapi  Mountains  (California) 
species  and  by  L.  squarrosa  Nutt.,  an  almost  prickly,  diffuse  little 
annual,  1  to  3  inches  high,  found  in  "desert"  areas  of  California 
and  Arizona ;  it  appears  to  have  no  forage  value  but  probably  does 
local  service  as  ground  cover.  Loeflingias  are  all  small  annuals, 
with  narrow  awllike  leaves  with  stipules,  greenish  flowers  with  3 
stigmas,  the  styles  small  or  lacking. 

Allseed  (Polycarpon),  also  called  "polycarp"  and  "manyseed," 
is  a  genus  of  bushy  little  annuals  with  flat  leaves,  thin  stipules, 
and  clusters  of  numerous  small  flowers  with  5  sepals,  5  petals 
shorter  than  the  sepals,  3  to  5  stamens,  and  3  styles  united  below. 
There  are  2  species  of  this  genus  in  California:  California  all- 
seed (P.  depressum  Nutt.),  a  very  diminutive  plant  growing  at 
lower  elevations  from  central  California  to  Lower  California,  and 
fourleaf  allseed  (P.  tetraphyllum  L.),  with  leaves  often  in  4's, 
naturalized  from  Europe  and  growing  in  waste  places.  These 
plants  are  not  known  to  have  any  forage  value. 

Corn  spurry  (Spergula  arvensis  L.)  is  widely  distributed  in  the 
United  States  as  a  weed  from  Europe.  It  is  an  annual,  6  to  18 
inches  high,  with  linear  somewhat  fleshy,  whorled  leaves — or  per- 
haps the  leaves  truly  opposite  but  appearing  whorled  because  of 
others  fascicled  in  their  axils  and  of  about  the  same  size,  1  to  2 
inches  long.  Sepals  and  white  petals,  5 ;  stamens  usually  10 ;  styles 
and  capsule  valves  usually  5.  It  has  been  reported  as  somewhat 
trailing  and  abundant  along  beaches  of  the  Tongass  National  For- 
est, Alaska.  Probably  unimportant  as  a  forage  plant  but  more  data 
are  desired. 

Sandspurry  (Spergularia,  syn.  Tissa)  is  represented  in  the 
western  range  area  by  about  11  species.  Svergularia  is  a  con- 
served name  under  the  International  Code.  The  species  are  low 
annual  or  perennial,  mostly  fleshy  herbs,  often  growing  in  saline  or 
alkaline  sites ;  the  leaves  are  opposite  but  often  with  smaller  leaves 
fascicled  in  their  axils ;  there  are  5  sepals  and  petals,  2  to  10  sta- 
m.ens,  the  styles  and  capsule  valves  usually  3.  Red  sandspurry  [S. 
rubra  (L.)  J.  &  C.  Presl,  syn.  Tissa  rubra  (L.)  Britton]  is  a  com- 
mon, branching  annual  or  short-lived  perennial  with  prostrate  or 
ascending  stems  2  to  12  inches  long,  the  pink  petals  shorter  than 
the  sepals,  and  widely  distributed  in  sandy  or  gravelly  sites  in  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres ;  it  is  native  to  Europe.  As  a 
rule  it  is  worthless  as  forage  but  occasionally  has  a  little  value 
for  sheep. 

Campion  (Lychnis) 

Many  members  of  this  genus  are  in  ornamental  cultivation; 
about  10  species  occur  on  western  ranges.  They  are  biennial  or 
perennial  herbs,  mostly  with  rather  showy  flowers.  The  sepals  are 
united  into  an  often  more  or  less  inflated  tube ;  petals  5  with  en- 
tire, 2-cleft  or  slash-toothed  (laciniate)  blades,  the  5  (rarely  4) 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  135 

styles  alternating  with  the  petals ;  stamens,  10.  In  Rydberg's  Flora 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  Adjacent  Plains  (173)  this  genus 
appears  under  the  name  WahlhcrgeUa,  and  in  a  later  work  (17i)  he 
accepts  Melaadriinu  and  Wahlhergella  as  well  as  Lychnis,  the  first 
two  genera  named  apparently  being  absent  from  all  our  other 
western  botanical  manuals.  Porsild  (161)  writing  about  flora  of 
the  continental  northwest  territories  of  Canada  has  a  section 
headed  "Melandrium  (Wahlhergella),"  in  which  he  indicates  that 
Wahlhergella  is  a  synonym  of  Melandrium  and  somewhat  apolo- 
getically states  that  this  group  has  "admittedly  slight  distinguish- 
ing features"  from  Lychnis. 

Perhaps  the  commonest  and  best  known  range  species  of  the 
genus  is  Druminond  campion  {^Lychnis  drummondii  (Hook.)  S. 
Wats.,  syn.  Wahlhergella  drummondii  (Hook.)  Rydb.],  found  on 
dry  hills,  plains  and  mountain  slopes  and  valleys  from  British 
Columbia  to  eastern  Oregon,  Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico,  and  north  to  Manitoba  ;  also  found  sparingly  in  Minnesota, 
Michigan,  and  Nebraska  (naturalized?).  It  is  a  perennial  herb,  6 
to  24  inches  high,  with  a  thick  rootstock;  reverse  lance-shaped 
leaves  with  the  narrow  end  downwards,  and  white,  pink  or  purple 
flowers  about  ^/j  inch  long.  Observations  on  national-forest  ranges 
do  not  indicate  that  livestock  find  this  plant  palatable.  The  species 
commemorates  its  discoverer,  Thomas  Drummond  (1780-1835), 
Scotch-Irish  naturalist,  nurseryman,  and  botanical  explorer  of  the 
arctic  and  western  Canada.  Pammel  (151)  reports  that  lychnidin, 
a  presumably  toxic  saponinlike  compound,  has  been  found  in  the 
familiar  ragged-robin  (L.  floscuculi  L.)  of  the  gardens. 

Silene  (Silene) 

Silene  is  a  genus  of  annual  or  perennial  herbs,  a  considerable 
number  of  which  are  in  ornamental  cultivation  in  rock  gardens, 
etc.  Some  species  with  sticky  glands  are  called  "catchfly."  "Cam- 
pion" and  "pink,"  names  better  referable  to  the  genera  Lychnis 
and  Dianthus,  respectively,  are  also  used  for  this  genus.  The  mostly 
white,  pink,  red  or  purplish  flowers  are  usually  in  clusters 
(cymes) ,  the  calyx  united  into  a  10-many-nerved,  cylindrical,  egg- 
shaped  or  bell-shaped  tube,  5  toothed  or  cleft  at  the  tip ;  the  5 
petals  are  clawed  at  the  base,  the  blades  often  cleft  or  toothed  and 
usually  with  a  scalelike  appendage  at  the  base;  styles  3  (rarely  4 
or  5)  ;  fruiting  capsules  opening  by  3  or  6  valves. 

There  are  about  42  western  range  species.  The  significance  of 
the  name  silene  is  in  dispute.  The  name  was  used  by  Linnaeus  and 
by  at  least  two  of  his  contemporaries,  Royen  and  Dalibard,  but  its 
significance  is  unexplained  by  them.  Some  authorities  derive  it 
from  Silenus,  the  mythological  father  of  the  satyrs ;  others  as- 
sociate the  word  with  Greek  sialon,  saliva,  because  of  the  slimy 
excretion  of  some  species.  At  least  eight  species  are  of  sufficiently 
wide  distribution  and  abundance  to  merit  short  reference. 

Moss  silene  or  "moss  campion"  (Silene  acaulis  L.)  occurs  in  the 
arctic  regions  of  both  hemispheres  and  on  the  highest  mountain 
peaks  in  the  United  States ;  in  the  east,  only  on  Mt.  Washington, 


136  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

New  Hampshire,  and,  in  Arizona,  only  on  the  San  Francisco  Peaks. 
It  is  a  small,  densely  tufted,  almost  mosslike  perennial  with  a 
M'Oody  crown  and  root ;  short  linear  leaves,  and  attractive  pinkish 
or  purplish  (rarely  white)  flowers  solitary  and  terminal  on  very 
short  stems.  It  is  a  typical  alpine  plant,  growing-  above  timberline 
in  rock  crevices,  carpeting  cliffs  and  ledges,  along  wet  glacial 
moraines,  and  the  like.  It  is  in  commercial  cultivation  as  a  rock- 
garden  plant. 

An  excellent  illustration  of  a  flowering  mat  of  this  species  can 
be  found  in  Plant  Physiology  and  Ecology,  (U2,  V-  98).  Also,  there 
is  an  illustrated  article  about  it  under  the  heading  "The  Cushion 
Pink"  in  the  American  Botanist  [25(1).  Feb.  1919 1.  This  diminu- 
tive plant  can  hardly  be  considered  as  forage  and  yet  sheep  and 
goats  nibble  on  it  a  bit  in  summer,  and  on  some  high  summer  ranges 
on  at  least  two  Colorado  national  forests  it  is  considered  fairly 
palatable  for  sheep.  Fernald  and  Kinsey  (70)  remark  that  the 
"Tough,  closely  forking  stems  and  masses  of  persistent  dead 
leaves  *  *  *  hardly  suggest  culinary  possibilities.  Nevertheless, 
*  *  *  Sir  William  Hooker  states  that  the  plant  is  'boiled  and  eaten 
with  butter  by  the  Icelanders.'  " 

Sleepy  silene  or  sleepy  catchfly  (Silene  antirrhina  L.),  with  an 
almost  continental  distribution,  ranges  from  Newfoundland  and 
Quebec  south  to  California  and  Florida  and,  farther  south,  into 
Mexico.  It  is  an  annual,  smooth  or  minutely  hairy  herb,  farther 
south,  into  Mexico.  It  is  an  annual,  smooth  or  minutely  hairy  herb, 
with  slender  erect  or  ascending  stems  8  to  20  (rarely  30)  inches 
high.  About  the  stem  joints  (diodes)  and  especially  below  the  upper 
ones  are  bands  of  gumminess  in  which  grains  of  dirt,  hairs,  small 
insects,  and  seeds  become  fastened.  The  narrow  leaves  are  oppo- 
site, the  lowest  narrowly  spatula  or  reverse  lance  shaped,  the  upper- 
most ones  awllike.  The  flowers  are  in  a  loose  forking  cluster,  the 
small  pink  petals  (sometimes  wanting)  folded,  or  "sleepy"  for  most 
of  the  day,  opening  only  for  a  short  time  in  sunshine. 

The  plant  occurs  in  dry  open  sites,  sandy  fields,  waste  places, 
open  gravelly  woods,  etc.  Occasionally  it  is  a  weed  in  cultivated 
ground.  In  Colorado,  according  to  Rydberg  (171) ,  between  eleva- 
tions of  5,000  and  6,000  feet.  On  western  national  forests  chiefly 
in  the  woodland  and  ponderosa  pine  belts.  The  forage  value  of  this 
plant  seems  to  be  negligible  or  slight.  Chesnut  (37)  remarks  that 
this  plant  is  "stated  to  have  poisoned  sheep  in  southern  Michigan 
a  few  years  ago,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  poisoning 
was  due  to  another  source."  Perhaps  it  was  on  this  basis  that 
Pammel  (151)  lists  it  as  "said  to  be  poisonous."  There  appears  to 
be  no  scientific  basis  for  this  supposition. 

Douglas  silene  (Silene  douglasii  Hook.),  a  species  dedicated  to 
its  discoverer,  David  Douglas  (1799-1834),  the  eponym  of  Douglas- 
fir,  occurs  in  grass  types  and  in  open  aspen,  spruce,  and  ponderosa 
pine  stands,  from  British  Columbia  and  Alberta  to  Montana,  Utah, 
Nevada,  and  California.  It  is  a  many-stemmed  herb,  finely  crisp- 
hairy  and  sometimes  a  little  glandular  above,  perennial  from  a 
woody  taproot.    The  narrowly  reverse  lance-shaped  to  narrowly 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  137 

linear  leaves  are  up  to  2  or  3  inches  long.  The  white  or  pink  flowers 
are  in  small  open  clusters ;  the  calyx,  oblong  obovoid  and  scarcely 
inflated,  is  about  1 2  inch  long,  green  nerved,  more  or  less  fine- 
hairy,  with  blunt  teeth ;  the  petals,  %  to  1  inch  long,  have  entire 
blades  except  for  the  2-cleft  tips,  the  egg-shaped  fruiting  capsules 
have  a  short  stipe,  or  stalklike  base. 

Sileue  multicauUs  Nutt.  is  probably  at  most  not  more  than  a 
variety  [S.  douglasii  var.  multicaulis  (Nutt.)  Robinson]  of  this 
species,  with  larger  flowers  and  better  developed  upper  leaves. 
Reports  of  its  having  greater  viscidity  and  inflated,  purple-veined 
calyces  are  probably  due  to  some  confusion  with  the  related  Lyall 
silene  (S.  lyallii  S.  Wats.)*  The  forage  value  of  Douglas  silene 
varies  with  location,  vegetal  composition  and  other  factors.  Fre- 
quently it  is  regarded  as  worthless. 

Ingram  silene  (Silene  ingramii  Tidestr.  &  Dayt.)  (fig.  30).  per- 
haps the  handsomest  of  the  western  silenes,  native  to  the  Umpqua 
National  Forest  area  (southwest  Oregon)  has  a  certain  melancholy 
interest  as  its  discoverer,  Douglas  C.  Ingram  (1882-1929),  dis- 
tinguished forest  officer  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service  Pa- 
cific Northwest  Region,  perished  in  the  Camas  Creek  Fire  on  the 
old  Chelan  (now  Okanogan)  National  Forest,  Washington,  pos- 
sibly on  the  very  day  that  the  species  was  published  (Biolog.  Soc. 
Wash.  Proc.  42:207-208,  illus.  Aug.  17,  1929. 

Abrams  (2)  and  Hitchcock  and  Maguire  (97)  have  categorically 
remanded  this  species  to  synonymy  under  Hooker  silene  (Silene 
hookeri  Nutt.),  but  Bailey  (10)  and  Peck  (155)  recognize  it  as  dis- 
tinct, because  it  is  taller,  with  somewhat  narrower  leaves,  distinctly 
tapered  calyx  lobes,  a  longer-stiped  ovary,  and  darker  (violet 
to  purple)  4-lobed  petals.  It  is  in  ornamental  cultivation  as  a  rock- 
garden  plant,  where  it  is  generally  considered  distinct  from  Hooker 
silene  (11,^1,76). 

Mexican  silene  (Silene  laciniata  Cav.),  also  known  as  **f ringed 
Indian  pink,"  "Mexican  campion,"  and  "yerba  del  India,"  is  a 
Mexican  species  ranging  north  into  the  Southwestern  United 
States  from  extreme  western  Texas  to  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  south- 
ern Utah  and  Nevada,  to  California  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Sac- 
ramento River,  and  into  Baja  California.  It  is  a  downy  erect  herb 
1  to  3  feet  tall,  perennial  from  a  woody  crown  and  taproot;  the 
opposite  leaves  vary  in  outline  from  linear  lance  shaped  to  reverse 
lance  shaped  (ohlanceolate) ,  or  narrowly  oval.  The  showy  crimson 
or  bright  scarlet  flowers  are  in  a  more  or  less  spreading  cluster, 
the  cylindrical  calyx  about  %  inch  long,  the  4  or  5  petals  much  ex- 
ceeding the  calyx,  their  blades  deeply  cleft  into  about  4  linear  lobes 
and  these  lobes  sometimes,  in  turn,  2  cleft  giving  a  somewhat 
fringed  appearance. 

Further  information  on  the  palatability  of  this  plant  is  desired ; 
in  general  it  seems  not  to  be  grazed.  Southwestern  persons  of 
Spanish  descent  are  reported  to  use  this  plant  as  a  kind  of  tea  and 
the  leaves  are  locally  considered  useful  in  the  treatment  of  sores, 
ulcers,  sprains,  etc.  The  species  is  in  ornamental  cultivation.  Kear- 


138  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-481214 

Figure  30. — Ingram  silene  (Silene  in- 
gramii  Tidestr.  &  Dayt.). 


ney  and   Peebles    (109)    call   it   "Arizona's   showiest   species   of 
Silene." 

Menzies  silene  (Silene  menziesii  Hook.),  ranging  from  Van- 
couver Island  and  southern  British  Columbia  to  Saskatchewan  and 
south  to  western  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  and  California,  has  been 
reported  also  from  southern  Missouri.  It  is  a  slender,  leafy- 
stemmed  plant,  perennial  from  slender  rootstocks,  the  habit  super- 
ficially resembling  that  of  Moehringia  macrophylla  (Hook.)  Torr., 
but,  of  course,  with  a  very  different  floral  structure.  The  often 
rather  weak  and  decumbent  or  spreading  but  sometimes  ascending 
or  even  erect  stems  are  3  to  12  inches  long,  the  herbage  more  or 
less  finely  glandular-hairy,  especially  above,  the  pubescence  having 
a  tendency  to  point  downwards  or  backwards. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS  139 

The  stemless  (or  practically  so)  opposite  leaves  vary  from  ovate 
lance  shaped  to  oblong  elliptic  or  linear  lance  shaped,  up  to  3  inches 
long-,  and  mostly  taper  at  both  ends.  The  inflorescence  is  leafy,  the 
plant  forking  above,  the  white  flowers  borne  on  slender  stalks  from 
the  upper  leaf  axils ;  they  are  less  than  '  -y  inch  long,  the  5  petals 
2  cleft  or  lobed  at  the  apex,  the  calyx  of  an  oblong  cylindrical  type, 
scarcely  inflated,  10  ribbed.  The  habitat  is  moist  mountain  woods, 
often  among  bushes,  along  streambanks,  in  mountain  meadows  and 
other  moist- wet  sites ;  more  rarely  in  drier  situations  and  usually 
in  the  ponderosa  pine  and  spruce  belts.  The  forage  value  is  vari- 
able, depending  on  abundance,  associates,  time  of  year,  size  of 
leaves,  etc. 

Oregon  silene  (Silene  oregana  S.  Wats.),  originally  known  from 
the  Blue  Mountains  of  northeast  Oregon,  occurs  in  the  mountains 
from  Washington  and  Oregon  (east  of  the  Cascades)  to  northeast- 
ern California  (questionable  in  northern  Nevada),  western  Colo- 
rado, Wyoming,  Montana,  and  Idaho.  It  is  a  more  or  less  sticky- 
hairy,  rather  disagreeable-smelling  plant  10  to  24  inches  high,  per- 
ennial from  a  usually  perpendicular  root.  The  leaves  are  few  and 
narrow ;  the  inflorescence  is  a  narrow  panicle,  the  calyx  cylindrical 
or  oblong  club  shaped  and  narrowed  at  base,  usually  10  nerved ; 
the  5  white  petals  are  about  %  to  %  inch  long,  the  base  of  the 
blades,  or  "claws,"  furnished  with  narrow  appendages  (auricles) 
and  scales.  Mostly  in  well-drained  open  sites,  sandy  or  gravelly, 
occasionally  loamy  soils,  from  medium  to  subalpine  elevations.  It 
seems  to  be  distasteful  to  grazing  animals  and  is  seldom  nibbled. 

Scouler  silene  (Silene  scouleri  Hook.),  dedicated  to  its  discov- 
erer, Dr.  John  Scouler  (1804-71)  who  accompanied  David  Douglas 
on  the  latter's  first  western  trip,  occurs  in  dry  grassy  plains  and 
in  meadows,  and  open  woods  up  to  the  ponderosa  pine  and  aspen 
types,  from  Vancouver  Island  and  British  Columbia  to  Oregon 
and  east  to  Utah,  Colorado,  and  Montana.  The  plant  is  perennial 
from  the  woody  branching  crown  of  a  taproot,  the  stems  erect,  8 
to  28  inches  high ;  it  is  minutely  hairy  below  and  glandular  and 
sticky  above.  The  basal  leaves  are  oblanceolate  and  up  to  4  inches 
long  and  nearly  i/j  inch  wide.  The  inflorescence  is  narrow  and 
spikelike;  the  petal  blades,  or  "claws,"  are  deeply  cut  at  the  tip, 
%  inch  or  more  long  and  white  or  purplish.  Ordinarily  it  is  only 
limitedly  cropped  by  sheep ;  on  certain  ranges  of  the  Beaverhead 
National  Forest  (Montana),  however,  the  palatability  was  con- 
sidered poor  for  cattle  and  horses  and  fair  for  sheep. 

Starwort  (Stellaria,  syn.  Alsine) 

Starworts,  sometimes  given  the  name  of  one  member,  the  com- 
mon chickweed  (Stellaria  media),  compose  a  genus  of  annual  or 
perennial  herbs  with  opposite,  linear  to  ovate  leaves,  often  weak 
and  spreading  stems,  and  white  clustered  (cymose)  flowers.  There 
are  about  25  western  range  species,  of  which  at  least  4  are  wide- 
spread and  common.  The  flowers  in  this  genus  consist  of  a  calyx 
of  usually  5  (sometimes  4)  separate  sepals;  usually  5,  sometimes  4 
notched  petals  (lacking  in  some  species)  ;  usually  10  (can  be  as 


140  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

few  as  2  in  some  species)  stamens,  and  a  pistil  with  mostly  3 
(rarely  4  or  5)  styles,  usually  opposite  the  sepals,  and  the  fruit- 
ing capsules  open  nearly  to  the  base  by  as  many  valves  as  there 
are  styles,  but  the  valves  (being  2  cleft)  appear  to  be  twice  as 
many.  The  stamens  and  petals  are  inserted  around  the  margin  of 
a  disk  under  the  stalkless  (sessile)  ovary. 

Starworts  are  found  on  a  wide  variety  of  sites;  however,  the 
majority  of  the  species  occur  in  moist  or  wet  places,  and  for  the 
most  part  are  small,  sparse  in  stand,  and  relatively  unimportant  as 
range  plants.  In  palatability  they  are  generally  considered  fair 
cattle  forage  and  fairly  good  sheep  forage. 

Under  the  old  American  Rules,  Alsine  L.  (1753)  had  "page 
priority"  (p.  272)  over  Stellaria  L.  (p.  421)  but,  under  the  now 
universal  International  Code,  Stellaria,  the  name  predominantly 
in  favor,  is  acceptable  and  preferred.  The  artificial  system  of 
Linnaeus,  based  largely  on  numbers  of  stamens  and  pistils,  neces- 
sitated putting  these  closely  related  species  into  separate  genera, 
chickweed  and  some  close  relatives  having  fewer  stamens  than 
most  starworts.  The  name  Stellaria  (from  Latin  stella,  star) 
alludes  to  the  resemblance  of  the  flowers  to  conventionalized 
"stars." 

Tuber  starwort  [Stellaria  jamesiana  Torr.,23  syn.  Alsine  jamesi- 
ona  (Torr.)  Heller]  (fig.  31),  known  also  as  James  starweed  and 
mountain  chickweed,  ranges,  chiefly  in  moist  sites,  from  the  wood- 
land and  ponderosa  pine  to  the  aspen  and  spruce  belts,  from  Wy- 
oming and  Idaho  to  Washington,  California,  and  western  Texas. 
In  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  Intermountain  Region  it  occurs  from 
about  4,500  to  10,000  feet  above  sea  level,  but  in  the  Northwest  it 
may  be  found  as  low  as  1,500  feet.  Although  occurring  in  a  great 
variety  of  soils,  it  is  more  likely  to  grow  on  sandy  or  gravelly  loams 
than  in  clayey  soils.  It  is  often  common  along  streams,  among 
shrubs,  and  especially  in  the  aspen  type. 

The  plant  is  a  perennial  herb,  from  tuberous  rootstocks  (which 
enable  the  species  to  propagate  vegetatively,  as  well  as  from  seed)  ; 
there  is  a  sticky  glandular  pubescence  at  least  in  the  inflorescence ; 
the  stems  are  4  angled,  4  to  24  inches  tall.  The  stemless  opposite 
linear  to  narrowly  lance-shaped  leaves  are  broadest  at  the  base 
and  up  to  4  inches  long ;  the  white  flowers  have  notched  or  2-lobed 
petals  about  twice  as  long  as  the  sepals. 

Tuber  starwort  rates  mention  because  of  its  wide  distribution, 
frequent  commonness  and  conspicuousness  when  in  flower.  The 
flowers  are  cropped  by  grazing  animals,  and  the  palatability  of  the 
herbage  is  fair  or  sometimes  fairly  good  for  sheep,  and  poor  to 
fair  for  cattle.  This  variation  depends  chiefly  on  freshness  of 
foliage  and  presence  in  quantity  of  more  palatable  associates.  Oc- 
casionally tuber  starwort  is  rather  heavily  grazed  by  both  sheep 
and  cattle;  such  extreme  use,  however,  is  associated  with  over- 
grazing and  other  undesirable  conditions.    The  amount  of  forage 

-•''The  scientific  name  commemorates  Dr.  Edwin  James  (1797-1861),  surgeon- 
naturalist  of  the  Long  Expedition  (1819-20)  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  He 
discovered  and  named  limber  pine  {Finns  flexilis) . 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS  141 


Figure  31. — Tuber  starwort  {Stellaria  jamesiana  Torr.). 


142    AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

produced  per  plant  is  small  although  this  is  one  of  the  largest  plants 
in  the  genus.  The  starchy  tuberous  rootstocks  are  edible  and, 
when  fresh  and  fleshy,  are  quite  palatable  with  a  pleasant,  some- 
what sweetpotatolike  taste ;  they  were  an  important  source  of  food 
among  the  Indians. 

Two  species  perennial  from  rootstocks  and  sufficiently  wide- 
spread and  common  to  deserve  brief  mention  are  described  here : 

1.  Longstalk  starwort  [Stellaria  longipes  Goltlie,  syn.  Alsine 
longipes  (Goldie)  Colville]  occurs  on  the  banks  of  running  streams, 
in  wet  meadows,  around  springs  and  other  moist  sites,  also  in 
spruce  burns  and  rocky  beaches  of  the  arctic,  from  Greenland  and 
Newfoundland  to  Alaska  and  south  to  California,  Arizona,  Colo- 
rado, South  Dakota,  Minnesota,  northern  Indiana,  New  York,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Quebec.  It  has  branched,  4-angled,  smooth  stems 
4  to  12  inches  high ;  linear-lance-shaped,  ascending  leaves  up  to 
about  1  inch  long,  and  solitary  or  few  long-stalked  flowers  on  erect 
pedicels.  It  is  occasionally  grazed  to  a  small  extent  but  does  not 
produce  much  herbage  and  usually  grows  where  better  forage 
plants  occur. 

About  equally  common  and  as  widely  distributed  as  Stellaria 
longipes  is  its  var.  laeta  (Richards.)  S.  Wats.  [syns.  SteUaiia  laeta 
Richards,,  Alsine  laeta  (Richards.)  Rydb.],  which  is  smaller,  with 
narrower,  lance-shaped,  sharp-pointed  sepals,  and  reduced  flowers 
in  the  leaf  axils ;  this  diminutive  variety,  hardly  worth  separation 
from  the  species,  is  too  small  to  have  forage  significance.  It  occurs 
in  Colorado  up  to  at  least  11,500  feet. 

2.  Siberian  starwort  (Stellaria  umbellata  Turcz.,  syn.  Alsine 
haicalensis  Coville),  originally  known  from  Siberia,  occurs  in  the 
Blue  Mountains  of  northeastern  Oregon,  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains of  California  and  east  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  Montana 
to  New  Mexico.  It  is  a  weak,  decumbent  or  ascending  plant,  1  to 
12  inches  high,  with  lance-shaped  or  narrowly  oblong  leaves  up  to 
%  of  an  inch  long.  The  flowers  are  in  umbels,  often  petalless  or 
with  the  petals  very  small.  The  usual  site  is  wet  to  moist  meadows 
or  in  loamy  soils,  but  it  has  been  found  growing  in  rock  crevices  on 
San  Francisco  Peaks,  northern  Arizona,  at  12,000  feet.  Ordinarily 
it  is  negligible  as  forage  but,  in  some  places,  is  fair  sheep  feed. 

Chickweed  [Stellaria  media  (L.)  Cirillo,-^  syn.  Alsine  media  L.] 
is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia  and  perhaps  also  in  parts  of  north- 
ern North  America ;  now  "almost  universally  distributed  as  a 
weed."  It  occurs  in  a  naturalized  condition  in  almost  all  parts  of 
North  America;  its  range  in  the  United  States  is  probably  still 
spreading ;  it  appears  to  be  commoner  in  the  East  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast  than  in  the  interior  and  is  much  more  common  around  ranches 
and  about  towns  and  settlements  than  on  the  mountain  ranges. 

Chickweed  is  a  weak,  somewhat  succulent,  tufted  and  diffusely 
branched  annual,  the  smooth  stems  prostrate,  decumbent  or  as- 
cending, rooting  at  the  lower  joints,  and  4  to  16  inches  long.  The 
leaves,  of  an  oval  or  oblong  type,  are  up  to  VA  inches  long,  the 

-^The  surname  of  the  18th  century  Italian  botanist  Domenico  Cirillo  is 
often  given  as  "Cyrill."  in  the  manuals. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  143 

lower  pairs  very  short  stalked.  The  5  white  petals  appear  to  be 
10,  each  being  deeply  divided  and  surpassed  in  length  by  the  5 
glandular-pubescent  sepals.  Frequent  as  a  weed  in  gardens,  lawns, 
fields,  waste  places,  along  irrigation  ditches,  etc.  In  the  moun- 
tains generally  in  moist  and  cool  sites,  often  on  shady  north  slopes, 
up  to  about  9,000  feet  in  Colorado  and  about  3,000  feet  in  northern 
Idaho  and  Montana,  often  appearing  in  spring  and  autumn. 

Mostly  of  minor  importance  or  negligible  as  a  range  forage  plant 
but  reported  to  be  relished  by  elk  in  winter  on  the  Olympic  National 
Forest  (Washington).  Chickens  are  especially  fond  of  the  plant, 
whence  the  common  name,  as  are  also  many  songbirds.  Carruthers 
(35,  p.  308)  states  that  "this  is  not  a  poisonous  plant"  but  adds 
that  more  information  is  needed  on  reports  of  its  "causing  dis- 
order to  the  digestive  system  when  eaten  in  great  quantity  by 
young  lambs. 

BUTTERCUP  FAMILY  (RANUNCULACEAE) 

This  large,  chiefly  Northern  Hemisphere  family  is  represented 
in  the  western  range  country  by  about  19  genera  and  226  species. 
It  is  noteworthy  for  its  acrid  juices,  its  large  number  of  ornamental 
plants  often  with  flowers  of  unusual  shapes,  and  its  importance 
from  a  range  stock-poisoning  standpoint.  In  addition  to  medicinal 
plants  mentioned  under  their  respective  generic  headings,  an  east- 
ern plant,  goldenseal  (Hydrastis  canadensis  L.)  has  rootstocks 
which  have  been  in  so  much  demand  medicinally  that  the  plant  is 
almost  extinct  in  a  natural  condition. 

Anemone  Tribe  (Anemoneae) 
Adonis  (Adonis) 

Adonis,  sometimes  called  "pheasant-eye,"  is  an  Old  World  group 
of  annual  or  perennial  herbs  with  alternate  dissected  leaves  and 
showy,  solitary,  terminal  yellow,  orange  or  red  flowers  composed 
of  5  to  8  sepals  and  5  to  16  petals  (the  latter  without  nectar  pits), 
and  numerous  stamens  and  pistils;  the  fruit  is  an  elongated  or 
rounded  head  of  achenes.  Probably  all  the  species  are  in  orna- 
mental cultivation  and,  from  this  fact,  at  least  three  species  have 
limitedly  escaped  and  become  locally  naturalized  in  range  areas 
of  the  West.  The  genus  perhaps  should  be  dismissed  from  consid- 
eration from  the  range  standpoint  except  for  its  apparently  active 
chemical  properties.  Spring  adonis  (Adonis  vernalis  L.)  is  an  offi- 
cial drug  plant,  its  dried  herbage  being  used  as  a  heart  stimulant, 
the  drug  often  adulterated  with  other  species  of  the  genus  which 
appear  to  have  the  same  properties  but  to  a  lesser  degree. 

Anemone  (Anemone) 

Perennial  herbs,  with  compound  or  dissected  leaves  both  basal 
and,  opposite  or  whorled,  forming  a  sort  of  stem  involucre  to  the 
long-stalked  flowers.  There  are  no  true  petals,  the  sepals  several 
or  numerous  and  petallike,  the  stamens  and  pistils  numerous.  The 


144  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

fruit  is  a  rounded,  oblong,  eg-gr-shaped  or  elongated  and  dense  head 
of  numerous  flattened  and  pointed  often  cottony  achenes.  Anemo7ie 
is  the  Greek  name  for  these  plants,  presumably  derived  from 
anemos,  wind  ;  they  are  frequently  called  "windflower."  Anemones 
are  represented  in  the  West  by  about  18  species,  where  they  occur 
on  moist  and  well-drained  soils  from  near  timberline  on  the  moun- 
tains to  the  lower  elevations  in  the  foothills  and  valleys,  in  both 
open  and  shaded  situations. 

The  flowers  of  some  species  are  produced  very  early,  with  the 
first  advent  of  spring,  adding  their  bright  colors  to  the  rather  drab 
landscape  of  the  season.  Various  species  are  cultivated  because 
of  their  beautiful,  showy  flowers  and,  in  several  cases,  for  their 
striking  foliage  as  well.  Some  species  constitute  fair  forage  for 
sheep,  deer,  and  elk,  but,  in  the  main,  anemones  are  practically 
worthless  for  cattle  and  only  poor  for  sheep.  Ordinarily,  they  are 
insignificant  for  forage  purposes  largely  because  the  more  succu- 
lent species  appear  early  and  quickly  desiccate. 

It  is  possible  that  all  anemones  contain  "anemone-camphor,"  or 
"oil  of  anemone,"  from  which  are  derived  anemonic  acid  and 
anemonin,  the  latter  a  bitter  ring  ketone  and  poisonous  narcotic. 
Fresh  anemone  plants  are  more  or  less  acrid  and  the  fresh  juice 
of  some  species  may  be  irritating  to  the  skin  and  eyes  of  some 
people  (123,  151,  211).  It  has  been  reported  (211)  that  European 
wood  anemone  (Anemone  nemorosa  L.)  has  caused  illness  of  cattle 
in  Europe,  but  there  appears  to  be  no  record  of  anemone  poisoning 
livestock  in  this  country.  Some  species  of  anemone  were  used  by 
the  ancient  Romans  as  a  treatment  for  malarial  fever,  and  Gilmore 
(80)  reports  that  American  Indians  used  anemone  roots  in  the 
treatment  of  wounds  and  attributed  to  them  mystical  healing 
powers. 

The  four  common  species  of  anemone  briefly  annotated  below 
are  reasonably  representative  of  the  western  range : 

1.  Candle  anemone  (Anemone  cylindrica  A.  Gray)  occurs  in 
woods  and  along  streams  from  New  Brunswick  and  Maine  to  New 
Jersey,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Arizona,  Utah,  and  eastern  Idaho.  The 
books  include  British  Columbia  in  its  range  but  that  seems  open  to 
question.  It  is  a  silky-hairy  plant  about  1  to  2  feet  high,  the  leaf 
blades  3  cleft,  those  involucred  on  the  stem  3  or  more  and  long 
stalked.  The  flowers,  mostly  1  to  3,  are  whitish,  yellowish,  pinkish, 
or  purplish.  The  fruiting  heads  are  elongated  cylindrical,  whence 
the  common  name  "thimbleweed,"  the  small  fruits  (achenes)  long 
and  cottony.  While  occasionally  observed  to  be  grazed  the  plant's 
palatability  is  normally  low  or  worthless. 

2.  Threeleaf  anemone  (Anemone  deltoitlea  Hook.)  occurs  chiefly 
near  the  coast,  from  British  Columbia  south  to  Del  Norte,  Siski- 
you, Humboldt,  and  Trinity  Counties,  northern  California,  mainly 
in  fertile  loamy  soils,  often  in  or  on  the  edge  of  timber  and  fre- 
quently along  streams,  between  about  100  and  5,000  feet  eleva- 
tion ;  often  common  and  abundant,  flowering  from  late  May  through 
August.  It  is  a  smooth  (or  nearly  so)  plant  with  slender  root- 
stocks,  stems  4  to  14  inches  high,  3-leafletted  basal  leaves,  the  leaf- 


NOTES  Oi\  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  145 

lets  ovate  and  toothed,  and  3  stalkless  (or  nearly  so)  simple  stem 
leaves  that  are  saw  toothed  or  sometimes  3  lobed.  The  white 
flowers  are  solitary,  the  achenes  not  woolly,  in  a  rounded  or  egg-- 
shaped  head.    Ordinarily  negligible  as  forage. 

3.  Globe  anemone  ^Anemone  yilobosa  Nutt.,  syn.  A.  muUifida 
var.  globosa  (Nutt.)  Torr.  &  Gray]  (fig.  32),  also  known  as  moun- 
tain anemone  and  Pacific  anemone,  ranges  from  Alaska  to  New 
Brunswick  and  the  New  England  States  and,  southward,  to  South 
Dakota,  Colorado,  the  San  Francisco  Peaks  of  northern  Arizona, 
and  northern  California.  Its  botanical  nomenclature  is  in  dispute. 
Some  authorities  consider  it  a  varietj^  or  synonym  of  the  subarctic 
northeastern  North  America  A.  huthomana  (DC.)  Richards,  (syn. 
.4.  midtifida  var.  hudsofiiaua  DC.)  and  others,  a  variety  or  synonym 
of  the  South  American  A.  midtifida  Poir.  There  is  no  doubt  that  A. 
globosa  is  closely  related  to  the  two  (typically)  smaller  flowered 
species  mentioned.  Globe  anemone  is  a  hairy  plant  with  a  stout 
rootstock,  stems  4  to  20  inches  high,  the  leaves  compoundly  divided 
in  3's  (2-  to  4-ternate),  their  ultimate  segments  rather  narrow,  the 
flowers  greenish  yellow,  pinkish,  or  bluish  purple  with  stout  and 
short  styles. 

The  species  is  probably  the  most  abundant  anemone  in  the  West 
and  occurs  in  meadows,  valleys,  and  foothills  from  about  4,000  feet 
up  to  timberline  (12,000  feet).  It  occupies  a  variety  of  soils  on 
either  dry  or  moist  sites,  prefers  sunny  situations,  but  occasionally 
appears  in  open  timber  stands.  As  forage,  globe  anemone  is  un- 
important, ordinarily  being  practically  worthless  for  all  classes 
of  livestock.  On  some  national-forest  areas  in  Montana,  Colorado, 
and  Utah  it  has  been  rated  poor  to  fair  for  sheep,  and  it  is  prob- 
ably eaten  to  some  extent  by  deer  and  elk. 

4.  American  wood  anemone  (Anemone  quinquefoUa  L.,  incl.  A. 
piperi  Britton,  a  western  form  of  the  species  which  intergrades 
completely)  ranges  from  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  south  to 
Tennessee  and  Georgia,  west  to  western  Ontario  and  Minnesota, 
entering  the  western  range  country  in  northern  and  western 
Idaho,  Oregon,  Washington,  and  British  Columbia.  It  is  a  rather 
low  (4  to  9  inches  high)  delicate  spring  herb,  perennial  from 
slender,  whitish  or  brown  horizontal  rootstocks.  The  stem  bears 
an  "involucre"  of  3  distinctly  stalked  quinquefoliolate  ("5  leaved") 
or  trifoliolate  ("3  leaved")  leaves,  and  solitary  white  or  whitish 
flowers  usually  with  5  or  6  sepals.  The  spherical  fruiting  head  is 
somewhat  bent  inwards,  the  individual  seedlike  fruits  (achenes) 
noncottony  but  fine-hairy. 

This  species  is  often  abundant  in  rich  more  or  less  shaded  sites, 
as  in  conifer  stands  in  the  mountains  between  about  2,500  and 
5,000  feet.  It  seems  to  be  unimportant  as  forage  but  has  been 
rated  as  fair  spring  deer  feed  on  the  Allegheny  National  Forest 
(Pennsylvania).  On  western  range  it  generally  disappears  by  the 
time  livestock  enter  in  the  spring. 

Anemone  qimique folia  has  been  confused  with  the  cultivated 
European  wood  anemone  (A.  nemorosa  L.),  which  has  become 
limitedly  naturalized  in  this  country;  that  species,  however,  has 


146    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK   If.l,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


m .« 


F-28710G 

Figure  32. — Globe  anemone  (Anemone  globosa  Nutt.)  :  A,  Fruiting  heads;  B, 
individual  fruit  {achene) . 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  147 

a  somewhat  coarser  habit,  paler  hue,  less  lobed  leaf  divisions,  and 
a  conspicuously  stouter  and  blackish  rootstock.  A.  ueniorosa  is 
reported  occasionally  to  sicken  domestic  animals  in  Europe  and 
both  it  and  our  American  plant  cause  an  inflammation  of  the  skin 
to  certain  sensitive  persons. 

Lyall  anemone  [Anemone  quinquefolia  var.  lyallii  (Britton) 
Robins.,  syn.  A.  UjaUii  Britton],  named  for  its  discoverer.  Dr. 
David  Lyall,  surgeon-botanist  of  the  middle  19th  Century  Inter- 
national Boundary  Survey  between  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
and  Oregon  anemone  \_A.  quinquefolia  var.  oregana  (A.  Gray) 
Robins.,  syn.  A.  oregana  A.  Gray],  are  sometimes  recognized  as 
western  variations  of  American  wood  anemone. 

Closely  related  to  the  anemones  and  united  with  them,  as  a  sub- 
genus, by  many  botanists  are  the  pasqueflowers  (Pulsatilla 
spp.).^^  Pulsatilla  is  distinguished  from  typical  Anemoyie  by  its 
elongated,  clematislike,  densely  feathery  styles,  very  conspicious 
in  fruit;  its  noticeably  larger  flowers  (the  sepals  sometimes  IV-i  to  2 
inches  long),  and  the  presence  among  the  stamens  of  glandlike 
staminodia,  or  abortive  nonfunctional  stamens. 

Hardly  any  two  American  manuals  agree  as  to  the  scientific 
name  of  our  American  pasqueflower  [Pulsatilla  ludoviciana  (Nutt.) 
Heller,  syns.  P.  hirsutissima  Britton,  P.  occidentaJis  (S.  Wats.) 
Freyn.,  Anemone  ludoviciana  Nutt.,  A.  occidentalis  S.  Wats.].  This 
confusion  is  due  to  disagreement  as  to  whether  or  not  (1)  our 
species  is  confluent  with  the  Old  World  spreading  pasqueflower 
[Anemone  patens  L.  ^  Pulsatilla  patens  (L.)  Britton  &  Brown],  (2) 
Pulsatilla  is  a  valid  genus  distinct  from  Anemone,  (3)  the  more 
western  form  should  be  separated  as  a  distinct  species,  P.  occi- 
dentalis, and  (4)  our  species  should  be  segregated  into  varieties, 
such  as  nuttaUiana  and  wolfgangiana. 

Regarding  American  pasqueflower  as  one  and  endemic  to  North 
America,  its  range  is  from  Wisconsin  and  northern  Illinois  and 
west  to  South  Dakota,  Montana,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  British 
Columbia,  and  Alaska,  south  to  California  (apparently  absent 
from  Arizona),  New  Mexico,  and  western  Texas.  It  is  the  State 
Flower  of  South  Dakota  (87).  Other  common  names  for  this 
plant  include  April-fools,  Easter-flower,  hartshorn,  headache-plant, 
mayflower,  rocklily,  wild-crocus,  and  windflower. 

The  Dakota  Indians  dub  the  pasqueflower  hakshi-chekpa- 
walicka,  meaning  twin  flower,  because  usually  each  plant  bears 
just  two  flowering  stalks  (80).  This  may  be  misleading,  as  al- 
though it  is  possible  that  two  stems  are  produced  more  often  than 
any  other  number,  plants  with  only  one  stem  or  with  several  stems 
are  not  uncommon.  In  Great  Britain  pasqueflowers  are  often  called 
"Danesblood,"  due  to  an  early  tradition  that  these  plants  first 
appeared  on  battlefields  stained  with  the  blood  of  invading  Danish 
warriors. 

American  pasqueflower  is  a  low,  densely  silky-hairy  perennial, 

-■'Pulsatilla  is  an  Italian  name  Latinized  by  medieval  botanists;  its  signifi- 
cance is  uncertain,  although  it  may  refer  to  the  throbbing  caused  by  the 
irritation  of  poultices  made  from  these  plants. 


148  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

with  mainly  3  parted,  dissected  leaves,  and  large  and  showy  pur- 
plish-blue to  whitish  flowers.  The  plant  occurs  mostly  in  rather 
dry,  sandy,  or  rocky  sites  and  has  a  wide  altitudinal  range  (about 
4,000  to  10,000  feet).  At  the  higher  elevations,  it  appears  on  ex- 
posed, sunny  slopes,  but  at  lower  altitudes,  it  occurs  both  in  the 
open  and  in  the  shade  of  trees  and  shrubs,  being  especially  char- 
acteristic of  open  stands  of  ponderosa  pine.  It  blooms  in  the  early 
spring  before  the  leaves  appear  and  often  at  the  edge  of  melting 
snow;  "pasque"  (signifying  Easter  or  the  Jewish  Passover)  refers 
to  the  early  flowering. 

This  species  contains  a  volatile  oil  anemonol,  or  "Pulsatilla  cam- 
phor," anemonin,  etc.  (211,  216),  and  is  listed  by  Pammel  (151, 
152)  as  a  poisonous  range  plant.  However,  there  is  no  record,  ap- 
parently, of  any  livestock  losses  from  it.  Its  palatability  is  low, 
and  it  produces  but  a  small  amount  of  herbage,  which  matures  and 
largely  desiccates  by  midsummer  and  ordinarily  is  only  slightly 
grazed,  if  at  all. 

The  Indians  use  the  crushed  leaves  of  American  pasqueflower 
in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism  and  similar  diseases ;  the  leaves 
are  applied  as  a  poultice,  but  if  left  in  contact  with  the  skin  long 
enough  will  cause  blistering  (80).  The  dried  herbage  of  this 
species  is  sometimes  used  as  a  source  of  the  drug,  Pulsatilla ;  the 
official  source  of  that  compound  is  the  dried  herbage  of  Old  World 
species,  especially  the  European  pasqueflower  (Pulsatilla  vulgaris 
Mill.,  syn.  Anemone  pidsatilla  L.).  The  plants  are  collected  shortly 
after  blooming  and  carefully  dried.  The  material  loses  its  medicinal 
value  if  preserved  much  longer  than  1  year.  The  drug,  used  for 
disorders  of  menstruation,  is  a  counterirritant ;  in  overdoses  it 
causes  vomiting  and  purging  with  pain,  tremors,  and  collapse. 

Clematis  (Clematis) 

This  large,  familiar  genus,  many  members  of  which  are  in  orna- 
mental cultivation,  is  chiefly  woody  plants  climbing  by  means  of 
twisting  leafstalks.   Frequent  other  common  names  for  the  group 
are  virginsbower  and  travelers-joy.   It  is  annotated  in  the  Range 
Plant  Handbook   (204)   and  Important  Western  Browse  Plants 
(54).  The  genus  is  remarkable  in  this  family  because  of  its  oppo- 
site leaves.  The  variability  of  the  genus  is  reflected  in  its  sections : 
Flammida  (perhaps  the  most  familiar  form  of  clematis  in  this 
country),  with  sexes  distinct,  climbing  over  bushes  and 
with  massed  clusters  (cymose-jmniculate)  of  small,  white, 
fragrant  flowers  with  four  spreading  sepals. 
Atragene,  with  3-leafletted  leaves,  and  large  solitary  (or  in 
3's)  nodding  flowers  with  thin,  separate,  divergent  sepals, 
the  filaments  of  the  outer  stamens  broadened  and  more  or 
less  petaloid. 
Viorna,  or  leatherflower,  with  simple  or  compound  leaves,  and 
solitary,   upright  or  nodding,   long-stalked,   more  or   less 
leathery  textured  and  urn-shaped,  often  purplish  or  brown- 
ish flowers. 
Viticella,  an  Old  World  showy  group,  shrubby  climbers  with 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS  149 

leaves  of  various  types,  and  large  starlike  flowers  of  various 
colors,  solitary  or  in  threes. 

The  common  herbaceous  western  range  species  is  Douglas  cle- 
matis, also  known  as  Douglas  leatherflower,  hairy  clematis,  and 
sugarbowls  [Clematis  hirsutlssima  Piirsli,  syns.  C.  douglasii  Hook., 
VioDia  bakeri  (Greene)  Rydb.,  V.  douglasii  (Hook.)  Cockerell,  V. 
eriophom  Rydb.,  V.  liirsutissima  (Pursh)  Heller],  which  ranges 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Cascades  from  British  Columbia  to  Grant 
County,  Oregon,  east  to  Utah,  Arizona  north  of  the  Grand  Canyon, 
northern  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Idaho. 

It  is  an  erect  perennial,  8  to  28  inches  high,  of  varying  hairiness 
(responsible  in  part  for  the  segregated  species  proposed),  peren- 
nial from  a  woody  base.  The  lowest  leaves  are  small,  undivided 
and  bractlike,  the  others  twice  or  thrice  pinnate  with  the  ultimate 
divisions  linear  or  lance  shaped.  The  brownish-purple  flowers  are 
solitary  and  nodding  on  a  naked  stalk,  the  4  leathery  sepals  erect 
but  with  recurved  tips,  up  to  2  inches  long.  The  small  fruiting 
achenes  are  silky-hairy,  their  persistent  styles  in  fruit  up  to  2V2 
inches  long.  The  plant  usually  flowers  in  May  and  June  and  dis- 
seminates from  the  middle  of  July  on.  It  usually  occurs  scatteringly 
in  well-drained  soils  in  the  open  or  at  least  under  moderately 
lighted  situations. 

The  palatability  of  Douglas  clematis  to  domestic  livestock  varies 
from  zero  or  low  to  fair  and  is  more  palatable  to  sheep  than  to 
cattle  and  horses.  Such  value  as  it  possesses  is  in  the  forepart  of 
the  season,  because  it  soon  becomes  dry  and  uninviting.  Like  all 
clematises  it  is  more  or  less  acrid  and  the  herbage  has  a  bitter  taste. 
Charles  Andreas  Geyer  (1809-53),  early  plant  explorer  of  the 
West,  reported  (78)  that  "the  Saptona  Indians  use  the  root  of  this 
plant  as  a  stimulant,  when  horses  fall  down  during  their  excessive 
races.  They  hold  a  scraped  end  of  the  root  into  the  nostrils 
of  the  fallen  horse.  The  effect  of  this  is  instantaneous,  it  produces 
trembling ;  the  animal  springs  up,  and  is  led  to  the  water  *  *  *  The 
scraped  root  leaves  a  burning  sensation  for  half  a  day,  if  touched 
with  the  tongue."  Some  clematises  were  formerly  used  medicinally 
as  counterirritants  and  as  blistering  agents  (125). 

Mousetail  (Myosurus) 

This  is  a  widely  distributed  genus  of  diminutive  stemless  (except 
for  the  flower  and  fruit  stalks),  almost  grasslike  annuals  with 
fibrous  roots.  The  threadlike,  linear  or  narrowly  spatula-shaped 
leaves  are  in  a  basal  tuft.  The  flowers  are  small ;  greenish-yellow 
petals  are  frequently  present ;  there  are  usually  5  sepals  conspicu- 
ously spurred  at  the  base ;  stamens  about  5  to  25.  The  numerous 
pistils  are  borne  on  a  cylindrical  terminal  axis  that  elongates  and 
iDecomes  spikelike  in  fruit — giving  rise  to  both  the  common  and 
scientific  names  [the  latter  from  Greek  7nuos  (mouse's)  +  oura 
(tail)]. 

There  are  about  nine  western  range  species  of  this  genus.  They 
are  often  common  in  moist  meadows  and  woodlands  or  weed-grass 
types,  frequently  in  sandy  or  gravelly  clay  loams  up  to  elevations 


150  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

of  9,000  feet  or  so.  Some  species  occur  in  bogs  and  others  in  alka- 
line seeps.  Apparently  there  is  no  record  of  their  being  grazed 
by  domestic  livestock  and,  even  if  grazed,  they  are  too  small  and 
short  lived  to  have  any  importance. 

Meadowrue  (Thalictrum) 

Meadowrues  are  erect,  mostly  leafy-stemmed  herbs,  perennial 
from  rootstocks,  with  alternate,  ternately  compounded,  columbine- 
like leaves.  The  leaflets  are  usually  three  lobed  and  often  more  or 
less  toothed.  The  flowers  of  meadowrues  lack  petals  and,  although 
individually  small,  are  often  showy  collectively  in  terminal  clusters 
(panicles  or  occasionally  racemes)  ;  the  early-falling,  petallike 
floral  bracts  (sepals)  are  greenish,  whitish,  or  purplish.  The 
flowers  of  a  few  species  are  perfect,  containing  both  male,  or  pollen- 
producing  organs  (stamens)  and  female,  or  seed-producing  organs 
(pistils) ;  in  most  species  the  pistils  and  stamens  are  borne  in 
separate  flowers  on  separate  plants  (dioecious)  or  occasionally  per- 
fect flowers  are  intermixed  with  male  and  female  flowers  (poly- 
gamous) .  The  male  flowers  are  often  attractive  with  their  numer- 
ous, delicate,  colored  stamens. 

Meadowrues  are  much  alike  in  general  appearance ;  but  besides 
differing  in  characters  such  as  racemose  vs.  paniculate  flowers, 
threadlike  vs.  club-shaped  filaments,  1-  or  2-sexed  plants,  fruit 
ribbing  and  shape,  they  are  chiefly  dissimilar  in  size,  leafiness  of 
stems,  shape,  size,  and  texture  of  leaflets,  and  color  of  roots.  Field 
determination  of  species  is  not  always  feasible;  fortunately  it  is 
seldom,  if  ever,  required  for  range  management  purposes.  Mead- 
owrues are  abundant  locally,  and  in  general  their  palatability  is 
practically  worthless  to  poor  for  cattle  and  poor  to  fair  for  sheep. 
However,  in  some  instances  they  may  be  utilized  rather  closely, 
especially  on  ranges  that  are  heavily  grazed  early  in  the  season. 
Excessive  use  of  meadowrues  generally  indicates  overstocking. 
Deer  crop  these  species  slightly ;  possibly  they  are  also  utilized  by 
elk.   The  herbage  has  a  somewhat  tanninlike,  acrid  taste. 

Approximately  14  species  of  meadowrue  grow  in  the  Western 
States,  the  majority  inhabiting  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They  prefer 
rich,  moist  soils  and  some  shade  and  appear  in  greatest  abundance 
in  aspen  and  among  shrubs.  However,  they  are  often  found  in  full 
sunlight  in  meadows  and  parks. 

Meadowrues  derive  their  name  from  the  meadow  habitat  of  the 
typical  Old  World  species — a  habitat  which  is  rather  characteristic 
of  the  genus  as  a  whole — and  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the 
foliage  to  that  of  cominon  rue  (Ruta  graveolens  L.).  However,  the 
bitterness  of  the  leaves  in  meadowrue  lacks  the  peculiarly  acrid 
character  of  rue.  Certain  species  of  meadowrue  are  sometimes 
known  as  "poor-man's  rhubarb,"  because  their  herbage  was  form- 
erly used  as  a  substitute  for  rhubarb.  Thalictrum  is  Latinized 
from  thalictron,  a  name  used  by  the  Greek  medical  writer,  Dios- 
corides  first  century,  B.C.),  for  a  plant  thought  to  be  the  Old 
World  low  meadowrue  (T.  Tniniis  L.). 

Because  of  their  feathery  masses  of  male  flowers,  their  graceful 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  151 

foliage,  often  in  pleasing  contrast  to  purplish  stems,  and  their 
hardiness,  many  of  the  meadowrues  are  grown  as  ornamentals. 
Some  species  are  suitable  for  mixed  borders  and  rock  gardens ;  the 
robust  forms  are  valuable  in  wild  gardens.  Some  native  range 
species,  alpine  nieadowrue  (Thalictrttm  alpiuutn  L.),  early  meadow- 
rue  (T.  dioicum  L.),  and  veiny  nieadowwrue  (T.  venulosum  Tre- 
lease)  have  been  used  commercially  for  some  time. 

There  is  evidence  that  some  species  of  meadowrue  have  active 
chemical  properties ;  hence  a  thorough  study  of  the  genus  from  this 
standpoint  would  be  of  interest  and  value.  The  roots  of  bigfruit 
meadowrue  (Thalictrum  macrocarpum  Gren.)  of  southern  Europe 
are  the  source  of  a  crystalline  yellow,  extremely  toxic  substance 
like  curare,  which  is  used  by  South  American  Indians  for  poison- 
ing arrows  and  darts.  This  substance  consists  of  fhalicti'me,  an 
alkaloid  insoluble  in  water,  and  macrocai-pin,  a  yellow  crystalline 
body  soluble  in  water,  representing  the  coloring  principle  of 
Thalictrum.  The  roots  of  some  species  yield  a  yellow  dye  suitable 
for  woolens.  The  same  elements  occur  in  the  roots  of  yellow  mead- 
owrue {T.  flavum  L.),  known  also  as  ''fenrue"  and  "monk's  rhu- 
barb," and  in  dusty  meadowrue  (T.  rugosum  Aiton,  syn.  T.  glaucum 
Desf.)  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  snoutseed  meadowrue  (T.  rhyn- 
chocarpum  Dillon  &  A.  Rich.)  of  north  Africa. 

Thalictnne  is  a  very  active  cardiac  poison,  which  causes  loss  of 
power,  convulsive  movements,  irregularity  and  depression  of  the 
heart  beat,  and  finally  death  (147).  Although  possibly  the  Ameri- 
can species  contain  the  same  toxins  as  the  foreign  species,  no  live- 
stock losses  attributable  to  these  plants  have  been  recorded.  Domes- 
tic animals,  to  be  sure,  would  hardly  be  tempted  to  eat  the  bitter 
roots  even  if  accessible.  Chesnut  (38)  writes  that  an  Indian  once 
reported  a  white  child  as  being  poisoned  by  eating  the  stems  of 
Sierra  meadowrue  [Thalictrum  polycarpum  (Torr.)  S.  Wats.],  a 
Pacific  species,  ranging  from  Oregon  to  Lower  California.  He 
further  reports  that,  among  some  California  Indian  tribes,  that 
plant  is  know^n  as  "coyote  angelica,"  angelica  being  a  universal 
charm  and  panacea  of  Indians  and  the  coyote  symbolizing  their 
idea  of  cunning.  These  Indians  believe  that  coyotes  eat  this  mead- 
owrue without  ill  effects. 

Two  of  the  most  common  and  characteristic  western  meadowrues 
are  briefly  annotated  here : 

1.  Fendler  meadowrue  (Thalictrum  fendleri  Engelm.)^^  (fig. 
33),  ranges  from  (southeastern  Oregon?)  to  Idaho  and  western 
Montana  and  south  to  (the  mountains  of)  western  Texas,  northern 
Mexico,  Arizona,  and  eastern  California.  It  is  often  abundant 
locally,  and  occurs  chiefly  in  moist,  loam  soils  in  aspen  or  among 
shrubs,  although  also  found  in  open  exposures  and,  to  some  extent, 
in  ponderosa  pine,  Engelmann  spruce,  and  other  coniferous  timber, 
up  to  elevations  of  about  10,000  feet.  It  is  about  1  to  3  feet  tall,  the 

-"The  species  commemorates  August  Fendler  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  who  first 
collected  it  in  the  mountains  near  Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex.  Fendler's  collections  in 
New  Mexico,  1846-47,  formed  the  basis  for  Dr.  Gray's  well-known  book 
Plantae  Fendlerianae. 


152  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-303665 

FIGURE  33.-Fendler  meadowrue  iThalictrnmfevd^eri  Enflni.)  Male  flowers 
above  at  right;  female  flowers  below  at  right;  single  achene,  or  fiuit,  lower 
right. 


sexes  distinct,  with  rather  small  leaflets  (under  %  of  an  inch  long), 

threadlike  anther  stalks  (filaments),  and  3-ribbed,  oblique,  reverse 

egg-shaped  (obovoid)  fruits  (achenes).  .     ^...fi.ciUr 

On  properly  grazed  ranges  Fendler  meadowrue  is  practically 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  153 

worthless  to  poor  in  palatability  for  cattle  and  poor  to  fair  for 
sheep.  On  very  heavily  jrrazed  ranges  it  is  sometimes  almost  com- 
pletely utilized,  but  ordinarily  the  close  cropping  of  this  species 
indicates  overstocking.  Kennedy  (112)  reported  that  sheep  on 
western  Nevada  ranges  were  very  fond  of  this  plant. 

2.  Western  ineadowrue  (Thalictrum  occidentale  A.  Gray)  favors 
rich,  damp  loam  and  on  such  soils  may  be  the  predominant  plant. 
It  occurs  in  shaded  habitats  of  partly  open  aspen  and  conifer  tim- 
ber, from  British  Columbia  and  Vancouver  Island  to  northern 
California,  Utah,  Montana,  and  Alberta.  It  is  a  medium-sized, 
much  branched  plant  about  2  to  3  feet  tall ;  the  leaflets  are  thin 
and  inconspicuously  veined;  the  plant  has  separate  sexes  (dioe- 
cious), the  stamen  stalks  (filaments)  of  the  male  plant  are  thread- 
like; the  narrowly  spindle-shaped  fruits  are  tapered  at  both  ends, 
6-  to  8-ribbed,  and  14  ii^ch  or  more  (6  to  8  mm.)  long. 

This  species  is  usually  of  little  or  no  value  as  forage  but  may  be 
lightly  grazed  by  sheep  in  certain  sections.  Darlington  (JfO)  states 
that  on  national-forest  ranges  in  Washington  and  Oregon  it  is  re- 
garded as  unpalatable  and  worthless.  However,  on  Idaho  national 
forests,  it  is  generally  rated  as  fair  to  good  sheep  feed. 

False-bugbane  \_Trantvetteria  carolinienis  (Walt.)  Vail.,  syns.  T. 
cjrandis  Nutt.,  T.  media  Greene,  T.  palmata  (Michx.)  Fisch.  & 
Mey.]  is  an  erect  herb,  perennial  from  a  mass  of  fibrous  roots,  up 
to  40  inches  high.  It  has  alternate  leaves  sometimes  as  much  as  8 
to  12  inches  wide,  of  a  broadly  kidney-shaped  (reniform)  outline 
and  deeply  and  digitately  5-  to  11-lobed,  the  lobes  in  turn  lobed, 
cut  or  toothed  and  separated  by  rounded  sinuses ;  the  root  leaves 
are  long  stalked,  the  stem  leaves  short  stalked  or  stalkless  and  re- 
duced in  size.  The  inflorescence  is  long  stalked  with  numerous 
flowers  in  a  (corymhiform)  flattened  or  convex  cluster;  the  flowers 
are  petalless,  with  3  to  5  soon-falling  greenish  white  sepals,  and 
numerous  white  and  rather  showy  stamens.  The  fruit  is  a  podlike 
follicle  (somewhat  similar  to  that  of  a  larkspur  or  columbine), 
tipped  with  the  bristlelike  persistent  recurved  style. 

Trautvetteria  is  a  small  or  perhaps  monotypic  genus  of  North 
America  and  Asia  and  much  in  need  of  further  study.  Most  west- 
ern manuals  call  our  western  plant  T.  grandis.  As  compared  with 
(typically  eastern)  T.  caroliniensis,  T.  graiidis  typically  has  thin- 
ner and  less  conspicuously  net-veined  leaves ;  its  stem  leaves  are 
usually  short  stalked  rather  than  stalkless,  and  it  has  smaller, 
broader  fruits  more  rounded  at  base  and  tipped  with  a  longer  style. 
The  segregate  known  as  T.  media  Greene,  of  New  Mexico  and 
southern  Utah,  has  slimmer,  less  club-shaped  stamen  stalks  (fila- 
ments) which  are  not  broader  than  the  anthers,  shorter  styles, 
and  the  fruits  are  hardly  rounded  at  the  base.  It  appears  to  merge 
hopelessly  into  the  typical  form. 

It  seems  better,  as  some  botanists  are  now  doing,  to  merge  Traut- 
vetteria grandis  with  the  eastern  T.  caroliniensis  (an  older  name) 
and  consider  our  plant  as  growing  across  the  continent,  from  Penn- 
sylvania to  Florida,  and  west  to  central  California,  and  British 
Columbia.  The  species  grows  in  moist  mountain  woods,  often  near 


154  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

or  along  streams,  up  to  subalpine  elevations.  It  flowers  from  June 
to  August.  Opinions  as  to  its  palatability  and  value  vary  greatly 
and  more  study  of  this  matter  is  needed.  The  genus  derives  its 
scientific  name  from  Ernst  Rudolph  von  Trautvetter  (1809-89), 
distinguished  Russian  botanist. 

Hellebore  Tribe  (Helleboreae) 

This  tribe  is  typified  by  the  true  hellebores  (Hellehorus 
spp.)  of  the  Old  World,  at  least  two  members  of  which,  Christmas- 
rose,  or  black  hellebore  (H.  niger  L.)  and  Lentenrose,  or  Oriental 

hellebore  (H.  orientalis  Lam.)  are  in  popular  cultivation  in  this 
country  as  ornamentals.  The  .plants  of  this  genus  are  poisonous, 
having  strong  cathartic,  diuretic,  and  cardiac  influences.  Hippo- 
crates (b.  460  B.C.),  ''the  father  of  medicine,"  wrote  of  black 
hellebore  (H.  niger  L.)  ;  the  plant  was  deemed  by  the  ancients  to  be 
useful  in  the  treatment  of  madness,  the  Greeks  having  a  verb  helle- 
horiao  meaning  "to  need  hellebore." 

Monkshood  (Aconitum) 

Monkshoods  compose  a  fairly  large  chiefly  Asiatic  genus  of  per- 
ennial herbs,  represented  in  the  Far  West  by  about  nine  species, 
although  a  number  of  segregates  have  been  proposed.  Washington, 
Idaho,  and  Montana  have  one  species  apiece;  the  Intermountain 
Region,  with  six  species,  appears  to  be  the  center  of  distribution 
for  the  genus  in  this  country.  Other  common  names  used  for  the 
genus  are  aconite  and  wolfbane ;  the  latter  name,  however,  is  per- 
haps best  restricted  to  the  Old  World  Aconitum  lycoctonum  L.,  and 
aconite  to  the  cultivated  drug  plant,  A.  napellus  L.  Aconitum  is  the 
classical  name  for  these  plants. 

The  roots  of  all  western  monkshoods  are  perennial,  many  are 
clustered,  and  most  of  them  tuberous  ;  these  parts  should  always  be 
represented  when  plants  are  collected,  because  they  vary  consider- 
ably in  different  species  (165,  166).  The  pithy  or  solid,  often 
slender  stems  are  frequently  solitary,  1  to  6  feet  tall,  and  vary 
greatly  in  leafiness  and  hairiness.  The  alternate  leaves  are  pal- 
mately  lobed  or  divided,  the  lower  ones  long  stalked,  and  the  upper 
ones  somewhat  reduced  in  size  and  short  stalked.  The  showy  and 
ornamental,  irregular  flowers  appear  from  mid-  to  late  summer  and 
are  wholly  unlike  those  of  any  other  plant  in  our  flora,  being 
readily  identifiable  by  the  peculiar  helmet-shaped  hood  formed  by 
the  large  upper  sepal. 

The  fancied  resemblance  of  the  flower  to  the  hood  that  a  monk 
commonly  wears  is  the  origin  of  the  English  name,  monkshood. 
The  flowers  occur  in  short,  few-flowered  or  long  and  many-flowered, 
branched  clusters,  and  are  characteristically  deep  blue,  although 
they  may  vary  from  violet  to  white  or  yellowish.  Frequently,  the 
fruits  (follicles)  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cluster  have  matured  their 
seed  while  the  upper  flowers  are  still  in  blossom. 

The  western  species  of  monkshood,  when  not  in  bloom,  may  be 
confused  with  tall  species  of  larkspurs  (Delphinium  spp.),  with 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  155 

which  they  are  frequently  associated,  because  of  the  similarity  of 
the  leaves  and  the  somewhat  analogous  growth  habits.  Differen- 
tiation between  the  destructive,  poisonous  larkspurs  and  the  or- 
dinarily harmless  monkshoods  is  not  especially  difficult,  as  the  lat- 
ter have  solid  or  pithy  stems  in  consrast  to  the  hollow  stems  of  the 
larkspurs.  Furthermore,  the  roots  of  western  monkshoods  are 
short,  clustered,  somewhat  fleshy,  and  tuberlike  with  short,  yellow- 
ish rootlets,  whereas  the  tall  larkspurs  have  long,  dark-colored, 
fibrous  roots  from  well-developed,  tough,  somewhat  woody  root 
crowns. 

When  the  plants  are  in  bloom,  the  irregular  flowers  of  monks- 
hood with  the  hoodlike  upper  sepal  are  so  distinctive  as  to  be 
readily  recognizable ;  the  spurred  flowers  of  the  larkspurs  are  also 
unmistakable.  Early  in  the  season,  before  the  stems  develop,  the 
western  monkshoods  may  be  confused  with  the  species  of  wild 
geranium,  or  cranesbill  (Gey-aiiium.  spp.)  because  the  leaves  are 
very  similar,  but  ordinarily  the  crushed  foliage  of  the  latter  has 
the  characteristic  geranium  odor. 

In  the  West,  monkshoods  grow  chiefly  in  the  mountains,  usually 
singly  or  in  small  patches,  and  seldom  occur  in  great  abundance 
over  large  areas.  They  appear  commonly  in  moist  open  woods, 
along  creeks,  in  meadows  and  grasslands,  often  extending  into  the 
higher  mountains  where  the  growing  season  is  short.  Their  habi- 
tat is  similar  to  that  of  the  closely  related  larkspurs.  Although 
widely  distributed,  monkshoods  are  seldom,  if  ever,  sufficiently 
abundant  to  attain  major  importance  on  the  range.  They  often 
constitute  fair  feed  for  sheep,  poor  or  worthless  for  cattle,  and 
are  but  rarely  grazed  by  horses. 

Although  technically  poisonous,  monkshoods  probably  seldom, 
if  ever,  cause  fatalities  or  even  sickness  under  range  conditions. 
The  most  poisonous  part  of  monkshoods  is  the  root,  usually  in- 
accessible and  unattractive  to  livestock.  The  seeds  are  also  poison- 
ous. This  matter  is  discussed  in  greater  detail  under  Aconitum 
columbianum,  the  most  important  western  species  of  the  genus. 

The  important  drug  aconite,  an  arterial  and  nervous  sedative 
used  to  alleviate  pain  in  such  disorders  as  facial  neuralgia,  tooth- 
ache, and  sciatica,  is  commercially  obtained  from  the  roots  of  the 
Old  World  plant  Aconitum  napellus  L.  (147) — the  species  of 
Aconitum  most  commonly  cultivated  in  the  United  States  as  an 
ornamental.  The  chief  active  principle  of  aconite  is  the  group 
of  closely  related  alkaloids  called  "aconitine"  (Cs.iH^j^NOjiC.v, 
H,,~NOii  *  *  *),  powerful  poisons.  Apparently  exact  chemical 
structure  of  these  alkaloids  varies  in  the  different  species.  McNair 
(127)  reports  that  the  various  aconitines  have  been  found  only  in 
this  genus,  which  is  noteworthy  in  giving  a  new  chemical  species  of 
"aconitine"  for  each  apparently  closely  related  species.  The  Amer- 
ican Pharmaceutical  Association  in  1938  concluded  that  tincture  of 
aconite,  as  then  prepared  under  the  U.S.  formula,  was  "of  no 
significant  clinical  value"  and  that  the  preparation  and  standard- 
ization of  the  drug  appeared  to  need  further  study  (195). 

Monkshoods  are  attractive  hardy  perennials  much  used  for  bord- 


156  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

ers  and  mass  formations  in  horticultural  plantings  because  of  their 
showy  flowers  and  attractive  foliage.  They  are  reproduced  by  root 
division  as  well  as  from  seed.  However,  these  plants  should  not  be 
planted  in  or  near  kitchen  gardens  or  in  children's  gardens  as 
their  roots,  leaves,  and  sometimes  the  flowers  may  cause  poisoning 
(8). 

Columbia  monkshood  (Aconitum  columbianum  Null.,  syns.  A. 
arizoniciim  Greene,  A.  patens  Rydb.)  (fig.  34)  is  representative  of 
the  western  species  of  Aconitum  both  in  appearance  and  palata- 
bility  and  is  the  most  common  and  widely  distributed  species  of  this 
genus  in  the  West.  It  is  a  tall,  perennial  herb  inhabiting  all  of  the 
11  western  range  States  and  occurs  from  British  Columbia  to 
California,  New  Mexico,  and  Montana.  The  common  and  specific 
names  refer  to  the  Columbia  River,  the  first  botanical  description 
of  this  species  resulting  from  a  plant  collected  on  the  Columbia 
River  near  Walla  Walla,  Wash.,  about  1834. 

Columbia  monkshood  prefers  moist,  shady  sites  along  streams 
and  around  springs  in  the  foothills  and  mountains  at  elevations  of 
from  approximately  1,000  to  12,000  feet,  but  it  is  most  frequent  at 
the  higher  elevations.  It  grows  in  a  great  variety  of  weed,  grass, 
and  timber  types,  is  common  in  aspen  and  among  willows,  and  oc- 
curs frequently  in  moist  mountain  meadows.  This  plant  is  seldom, 
if  ever,  the  dominant  species  in  areas  it  inhabits,  though  it  not  in- 
frequently grows  in  small,  dense  patches.  It  flourishes  in  deep, 
moist,  sandy  or  clayey  loams,  especially  if  rich  in  humus. 

Columbia  monkshood  is  an  erect,  stout,  single-stemmed  plant, 
from  2  to  occasionally  6  feet  in  height,  the  stem  being  solid  or 
pithy  within,  more  or  less  hairy  or  somewhat  sticky  above.  The 
front  line  of  the  beaked  flower  "hood"  is  almost  straight.  This 
species  has  not  as  yet  come  into  general  use  as  an  ornamental, 
although  it  is  fully  as  handsome  as  a  number  of  its  sister  species 
commonly  grown  for  horticultural  purposes. 

Columbia  monkshood,  while  recognized  as  potentially  poisonous 
to  cattle,  is  very  rarely,  if  ever,  consumed  by  such  animals  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  under  range  conditions  to  cause  losses.  The  use 
of  this  species  varies  considerably  in  different  parts  of  the  West. 
In  California,  the  Southwest,  the  Intermountain  Region,  and 
Idaho,  cattle  seldom  touch  it,  and  sheep  usually  either  ignore  it  or 
merely  pick  off  some  of  the  leaves  and  tops.  In  the  northern  Rocky 
Mountains,  from  Montana  to  Colorado,  its  utilization  seems  to  be 
greater,  sometimes  being  considered  of  fair  palatability  for  cattle 
and  fairly  good  for  sheep.  The  greatest  range  use  of  the  species 
ordinarily  occurs  on  summer  ranges  of  the  Northwest  where  sheep 
frequently  utilize  from  70  to  80  percent  of  the  herbage,  and  cattle 
between  about  30  and  60  percent. 

Nearly  all  the  Western  United  States  literature  on  poisonous 
properties  of  monkshoods  is  concerned  with  Columbia  monkshood. 
Marsh  (129),  in  writing  of  this  species,  says:  "Monkshood,  as  is 
well  known,  is  a  poisonous  plant,  but  somewhat  extensive  experi- 
mental work  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  demonstrated 
that  it  does  not  poison  livestock  on  the  range."    However,  in  the 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


157 


Figure  34.— Columbij 


F— 291247 

.  monkshood    {Aconitum   columhianum   Nutt.,   svns    A 

i^TwT  ^'"T"^'  "^-P^^r'  I^ydb.).  Individual  flower  and  cluster  of  fruit- 
ing follicles  m  lower  right. 


158  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

legend  to  his  colored  Plate  9  of  this  species,  Marsh  adds :  "Although 
poisonous  plants,  monkshoods  do  not  poison  cattle,"  saying  nothing 
about  other  kinds  of  livestock.  Chesnut  (37)  states  categorically 
that  Columbia  monkshood  "sometimes  poisons  sheep"  in  the  North- 
western States. 

In  Colorado,  Glover  and  Robins  (82)  report  that  this  species  "is 
a  very  poisonous  plant  but  because  of  its  limited  distribution,  and 
its  w^idely  scattered  habit  of  growth,  it  is  not  much  eaten.  Animals 
have  been  seen  to  reject  the  plant  even  after  taking  it  in  the  mouth, 
because  of  its  peculiar  local  effect."  Gail  (77)  in  Idaho,  also  writing 
of  Columbia  monkshood,  said :  "In  the  case  of  the  horse  the  animal 
falls  down  and  is  unable  to  rise." 

Beath  and  cooperators  (13,15),  in  discussing  Columbia  monks- 
hood, state :  "The  losses  from  aconite  poisoning  are  camparatively 
small"  and  "It  has  been  demonstrated  that  cattle  are  not  suscep- 
tible. Sheep  and  horses  may  be  fatally  poisoned  by  aconite."  It 
would  appear  from  Beath's  investigation  that  Columbia  monkshood 
would  not  make  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  the  Old  World  Aco7ii- 
tum  napellus  as  a  source  of  the  drug  aconite  (14).  He  found  A. 
columhianum  less  than  0.5  percent  as  active  as  A.  napellus.  Muen- 
SQhQY(lJfl)  reports  that  the  toxicity  of  this  plant  varies  with  the 
climatic  conditions  of  the  habitat  and  that  it  "seems  to  be  most 
poisonous  just  before  flowering," 

Columbia  monkshood  is  frequently  associated  with  tall  lark- 
spurs, which  are  responsible  for  heavy  cattle  losses  in  the  West.  In 
seme  localities,  such  as  certain  parts  of  Yellowstone  Park,  Colum- 
bia monkshood  grows  in  great  abundance  whereas  larkspurs  are 
comparatively  rare;  in  other  places,  such  as  the  region  between 
Yellowstone  Lake  and  the  Grand  Canyon,  the  larkspurs  are  very 
abundant  and  Columbia  monkshood  is  infrequent  (129).  Inasmuch 
as  the  tall  larkspurs  are  very  poisonous,  especially  in  the  spring 
and  fall,  and  Columbia  monkshood,  though  possessing  poisonous 
properties,  seems  to  be  negligible  as  a  cause  of  range  cattle  losses, 
it  is  of  great  importance  to  learn  to  distinguish  these  plants  in  the 
field.  (See  pp.  154-155.) 

Baker  monkshood  lAconitum  bakeri  Greene,  syns.  A.  columhi- 
anum var.  hake7'i  (Greene)  Harrington,  A.  porr-ectum  Rydb.,  A. 
robertianum  Greene]  is,  next  to  Columbia  monkshood,  probably 
the  commonest  of  western  monkshoods.  It  ranges  in  moist  to  wet 
open  subalpine  situations,  chiefly  in  sandy  loams,  between  7,000 
and  12,000  feet,  from  Wyoming  and  Colorado  to  Utah  and  New 
Mexico.  It  is  distinguished  from  Columbia  monkshood  chiefly  by 
its  somewhat  smaller  size  (16  to  28  inches  high),  compact  almost 
spikelike  inflorescence,  and  by  the  front  line  of  the  "hood"  sepal 
being  concave  instead  of  nearly  straight,  with  a  nearly  horizontal 
(porrect)  beak ;  there  are  some  minor  but  inconstant  differences. 

Although  reported  as  "poisonous"  by  collectors  on  the  Gunnison 
and  San  Isabel  National  Forests  (Colorado),  no  losses  have  ever 
been  attributed  to  this  species  so  far  as  Forest  Service  records  in- 
dicate. The  herbage  usually  appears  to  be  distasteful  to  cattle 
but  it  is  taken  sometimes  by  sheep  and  apparently  with  impunity. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  159 

Typically,  the  plant  is  more  sticky  (viscid  or  glutinous)  at  the  top 
than  Columbia  monkshood  and  its  palatability  probably  averages 
somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  latter  species.  The  species  commem- 
orates Charles  Fuller  Baker  (1872-1927),  well-known  western 
entomological  and  botanical  collector,  after  whom  Dr.  E.  L.  Greene 
named  his  serial  Plantae  Bakerianae. 

Baneberry  (Actaea) 

This  is  a  small  Northern  Hemisphere  genus  of  closely  related, 
erect  perennial  herbs  with  ternately  compound  leaves,  small  flowers 
in  dense  terminal  spikelike  racemes,  a  solitary  pistil,  and  the  fruit 
a  berry.  The  fruit  of  all  species  appears  to  be  somewhat  poisonous 
— whence  the  common  name.  The  type  of  the  genus,  the  Old  World 
black  baneberry  (Actaea  spicata  L.),  of  which  older  botanists  con- 
sidered our  American  species  to  be  varieties,  has  the  reputation  of 
sometimes  poisoning  sheep.  Baneberries  are  occasionally  culti- 
vated as  ornamentals.  The  scientific  name  is  derived  from  Greek 
axrea,  which  was  the  classical  name  of  the  European  elder  (Sani- 
bucus  nigra  L.),  the  name  having  been  deliberately  transferred 
by  Linnaeus  to  the  baneberry  genus.  There  are  three  or  four  west- 
ern range  species  of  the  genus,  of  which  western  baneberry  is  the 
most  common  and  important. 

Western  baneberry  [Actaea  arguta  Nutt.,  syn.  A.  spicata  var. 
arguta  (Nutt.)  Torr.]  (fig.  35),  also  known  as  western  red  bane- 
berry, is  found  from  Alaska  to  central  California,  Arizona,  Mon- 
tana, Alberta,  and  South  Dakota.  It  is  sometimes  confused  with  a 
typically  eastern  species,  red  baneberry  [A.  rubra  (Aiton)  Willd.], 
which,  however,  gets  into  the  northern  Rocky  Mountains  area, 
and  which  has  noticeably  larger  and  elliptical  fruit  on  much  more 
slender  (instead  of  thick  and  stiff)  stalks  (pedicels).  Western 
baneberry  has  rather  stout  stems,  16  to  32  inches  tall,  branched 
above,  slightly  hairy,  with  brown  sheaths  at  the  base.  The  small 
white  flowers  have  3  to  5  petallike,  soon-falling  sepals  and  4  to  10 
small,  clawed  petals  shorter  than  the  numerous,  slender-stalked 
stamens.  The  fruits  are  rounded  and  red. 

The  plant  occurs  chiefly  in  rich  moist  soils,  either  in  the  open  or 
in  shade,  often  in  aspen  or  spruce  types,  along  streams  or  around 
the  roots  of  willows ;  in  Montana  and  Idaho  between  elevations  of 
about  3,500  to  7,500  feet,  in  Utah  and  Nevada  mostly  at  8,500  to 
9,500  feet  or  more.  Ordinarily  the  plant  is  regarded  as  unpalatable 
and  worthless,  but  there  appear  to  be  occasional  exceptions.  It  has 
been  reported  to  be  eaten  by  horses  on  the  Flathead  National  For- 
est (Montana)  range,  and  to  be  fair  sheep  feed  on  the  Boise  Na- 
tional Forest  (Idaho). 

Widely  distributed  in  Canada  and  the  United  States,  with  about 
the  same  range  as  Actaea  arguta  plus  A.  rubra,  is  a  form  with 
ellipsoid  white  berries  known  in  literature  as  "A.  alba  (L.)  Mill." 
and  A.  eburnea  Rydb.  Probably  the  best  disposition  of  this  plant 
is  that  by  Fernald  (69)  who  calls  it  A.  rubra  forma  neglecta  (Gill- 
man)  Robinson.  An  excellent  illustration  of  this  baneberry  is 
given  in  Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  Montana   (39,  PL  28);  the 


160  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-25198A 

FIGURE  35.-Western  baneberry   [Actea  ar guta  ^utt.,  syn.   A.   spicata  var. 
arguta  (Nutt.)   Torr.J. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  161 

authors  of  that  work  made  experimental  feedings  of  the  plant  to 
rabbits.  Ordinarily  it  is  not  grazed  by  domestic  livestock  except 
where  other  forage  is  scarce.  The  plant  has  been  reported  as  fair 
summer  deer  forage  on  the  Allegheny  National  Forest  (north- 
western Pennsylvania),  and  it  would  be  of  interest  to  know  wheth- 
er such  animals  also  utilize  other  baneberries. 

Columbine  (A  quilegia) 

Columbines  comprise  a  fairly  large  genus  of  closely  related 
plants  found  naturally  in  Europe,  North  America,  and  Asia.  They 
are  perennial  from  more  or  less  thick,  woody,  often  perpendicular 
and  branched  roots,  with  erect  stems  varying  from  a  few  inches  to 
5  feet  or  so  high,  twice  or  thrice  ternately  compound  leaves,  and 
very  characteristic,  chiefly  nodding  flowers,  blue,  red,  yellow  or 
white  (or  tints  or  mixtures  of  those  colors)  ;  the  5  sepals  are  col- 
ored and  petallike;  the  inner  5  petals  have  a  short  "lip"  and  (with 
rather  rare  exceptions)  are  produced  backwards  into  hollow 
"spurs"  ;  the  stamens  are  numerous,  the  innermost  ones  reduced  to 
sterile  staminodia.  The  5  pistils  ripen  into  a  head  of  5  erect,  many- 
seeded  follicles,  or  small  "pods." 

Aquilegia^'^  has  two  excellent  monographs,  the  North  American 
species  by  Payson  (15^)  and  those  of  the  world  by  Munz  (IH). 
According  to  the  conservative  treatment  of  Munz  there  are  17 
species  and  14  varieties  of  columbines  native  to  the  Far  West. 
However,  two  other  species,  Hinckley  columbine  (A.  hinckleyana 
Munz)  and  longspur  columbine  (A.  longissima  A.  Gray),  the  latter 
with  much  the  longest  spurs  in  the  genus,  occur  in  extreme  western 
Texas  and  neighboring  Mexico;  another,  Yukon  columbine  (A. 
brevistyla  Hook.)  ranges  as  far  south  as  South  Dakota,  and  the 
eastern  so-called  American  columbine,  or  Canada  columbine,  (A. 
canadensis  L.)  reaches  westward  to  the  Great  Plains  of  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas.  American  columbine,  according 
to  Gilmore  (80)  was  an  important  plant  to  certain  Indian  tribes 
as  a  love  charm  and  medicine.  This  red-and-yellow-flowered  plant, 
often  cultivated  as  an  ornamental,  frequently  grows  on  cliffs  and 
other  places  difficult  of  access. 

The  genus  has  attracted  considerable  attention  from  students  of 
plant  genetics,  cytology,  and  phylogeny.  Stebbins  (189)  says: 

"Aqid'egia  has  become  a  classic  example  of  a  genus  in  which  isolating  bar- 
riers between  species  are  weak  or  absent  *  *  *  They  are  almost  entirely 
allopatric;  in  a  few  places  two  species  grow  in  the  same  region,  but 
rarely,  if  ever,  more  than  two,  if  we  except  regions  which  because  of  their 
great  topographic  relief  include  more  than  one  climatic  zone  *  *  *  The 
species  are  based  almost  entirely  on  differences  in  size,  shape,  proportions, 
and  color  of  the  sepals  and  petals." 


2'The  traditional  explanation  of  the  scientific  generic  name  is  from  Latin 
aqnila  (eagle),  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  curving  flower  spurs  to  an 
eagle's  claws.  A  probably  less  accurate  derivation  is  from  Latin  aqua  (water) 
+  legere  (to  collect),  in  allusion  to  the  watery  nectar  at  the  bottom  of  the 
spurs.  The  common  name  columbine  comes,  through  French  and  Medieval 
Latin,  from  the  Latin  adjective  coluvibinus  (like  a  dove,  or  pigeon,  columba) 
and  alludes  to  a  certain  resemblance  of  the  upright  spurs  of  a  nodding  colum- 
bine flower  to  a  group  of  five  doves,  or  pigeons. 


162  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Species  of  AquUexiia  are  among  the  most  beautiful  native  west- 
ern plants,  and  columbine  has  been  suggested  as  an  appropriate 
floral  emblem  of  the  United  States.  Every  State  and  Alaska  has  at 
least  one  native  species ;  the  largely  red,  w^hite,  or  blue  flowers  are 
handsome  and  the  foliage  graceful. 

Columbines  usually  grow  in  moist  situations  such  as  shady 
streambanks,  meadows,  aspen  groves,  and  open  woods  from  the 
lower  foothills  to  the  high  mountains.  Some  species  appear  on  high, 
exposed  rocky  ridges  and  in  sheltered  canyons,  seldom  in  pure 
stands,  but  more  characteristically  scattered. 

As  forage  plants,  columbines,  though  often  large  and  leafy  and 
sometimes  abundant  locally,  are  of  but  secondary  importance. 
They  rate  in  palatability  as  fair  for  sheep,  poor  for  cattle,  and 
practically  worthless  for  horses.  They  are  rather  delicate  plants 
and  are  likely  to  succumb  if  the  range  is  depleted  by  overstocking, 
or  other  abuse,  particularly  if  seeding  is  prevented.  Due  to  past 
mismanagement,  columbines  have  been  greatly  reduced  on  sheep 
ranges  in  Colorado  where  formerly  they  were  plentiful. 

Most  species  of  columbine  are  in  ornamental  cultivation,  but  the 
modern,  long-spurred  columbines  popular  in  gardens  are  chiefly 
hybrids  or  mutants  (10).  The  species  most  used  in  hybridiza- 
tion are  probably  our  native  Colorado  columbine  (Aquilegia  caeru- 
lea  James)  and  golden  columbine  (A.  chrysantha  A.  Gray),  the 
Mexican  Skinner  columbine  (A.  skinneri  Hook.),  Altai  columbine 
(A.  glandnlosa  Fisch.)  of  Siberia,  and  the  European  columbine 
(A.  vulgaris  L.).  The  last  named,  a  frequently  cultivated  blue- 
flowered  species,  is  occasionally  naturalized  in  this  country.  It  has 
been  reported  as  capable  of  producing  symptoms  in  experimental 
animals  very  similar  to  the  extreme  prostration  caused  by  aconite 
(U7). 

Colorado  columbine  (Aquilegia  caerulea  James) ^^  (fig-  36) 
ranges  from  southwestern  Montana  and  central  Idaho  south  to 
eastern  Utah  and  northern  New  Mexico.  It  occurs  on  the  Kaibab 
Plateau  of  northern  Arizona  in  the  variety  pinetorum  (Tidestr.) 
Payson  (syn.  A.  pinetorum  Tidestrom),  which  usually  has  thrice 
ternate  leaves  with  small  leaflets  and  large,  bluish,  reddish,  or 
whitish  flowers  with  slender  spurs  I14  to  nearly  3  inches  long. 
Colorado  columbine  is  considered  by  many  the  handsomest  of  all 
columbines.  It  is  especially  abundant  in  Colorado  and  is  the  State 
flower,  protected  by  law.  This  plant,  important  in  horticulture, 
was  introduced  into  cultivation  in  England  as  early  as  1864. 

The  typical  form  of  this  rather  variable  species  ranges  in  height, 
depending  chiefly  on  site,  from  8  to  32  inches.  The  leaves  (mostly 
long-stemmed  root  leaves)  are  twice  ternate  (divided  in  3's),  the 
leaflets  rather  thin  and  large  (mostly  more  than  'Y\.  of  an  inch 
long)  and  usually  bluish  beneath.  The  flowers  are  large  (specimens 


-^'Discovered  on  the  divide  between  the  Platte  and  Arkansas  Rivers,  Colorado, 
and  named  by  Dr.  Edwin  James  (1797-1861),  surgeon-naturalist.  The  specific 
adjective,  meaning  cerulean  or  sky  blue,  is  often  spelled  coeridea  but  the 
digraph  of  the  original  publication  of  the  name  clearly  indicates  that  James 
intended  the  ae  form. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


163 


Figure  36. — Colorado  columbine  (Aquilegia  caerulea  James), 


164  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

5  inches  wide  have  been  reported),  with  a  fine  contrast  between  the 
spreading,  deep  to  light  blue  sepals  (up  to  II/2  inches  long  or  more), 
the  white  or  whitish  blades  of  the  petals  (up  to  about  1  inch  long), 
and  the  yellow  stamens.  The  spurs  are  somewhat  outcurved  or 
straight,  1  to  2  inches  long. 

One  of  the  variations,  white  Colorado  columbine  [Aquilegia 
caerulea  var.  ochroleuca  Hook.,  syns.  A.  caemlea  var.  albifiora  A. 
Gray,  A.  leptocera  Nutt.]  has  white  or  somewhat  cream-colored 
flowers.  These  plants  bloom  from  June  to  August  and  occur  in  the 
mountains  (between  about  6,500  and  12,500  feet)  up  to  and  above 
timbeiiine,  frequently  in  moist  meadows  or  on  the  edge  of  pon- 
derosa  pine,  lodgepole,  aspen,  and  other  timber.  Except  under  very 
favorable  conditions  the  plants  are  not  abundant  enough  to  make 
up  much  of  the  vegetation  and,  ordinarily,  the  plant  is  not  touched, 
especially  by  cattle,  except  for  some  nibbling  of  the  flowers  and 
tender  leaves  by  sheep.  On  some  ranges  in  Utah,  however,  the 
palatability  for  sheep  has  been  reckoned  as  fair.  However,  such 
use  may  be  associated  with  overgrazing  or  some  other  local  con- 
dition. 

The  peculiar  Aquilegia  caerulea  var.  ilaileyae  Easterwood,  ap- 
parently confined  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  National  Park  in  Colo- 
rado, has  spurless  flowers. 

Golden  columbine  (Aquilegia  chrysantha  A.  Gray),  a  species  of 
particular  horticultural  importance,  ranges  from  central  and  south- 
ern Colorado  south  to  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Chihuahua,  and  So- 
nora.  The  stems  are  solitary  or  few,  branched  above,  1  to  3  feet 
high  (rarely  shorter  or  taller),  hairless  (glabrous)  except  for  a 
sticky  hairiness  in  the  inflorescence,  perennial  from  a  taproot 
with  a  thickened  woody  crown.  The  root  leaves  are  usually  thrice 
ternately  compound,  the  leaflets  broadly  wedgelike  (cuneate)  at  the 
base  and  scalloped  (crenate)  at  the  tip,  1/2  to  1V^2  inches  long.  The 
flowers  are  golden  yellow,  the  petal  blades  8  to  16  mm.  (averaging 
about  1/2  inch)  long,  the  spurs  IV-y  to  nearly  3  inches  long,  the 
terminal  nectaries  knoblike  and  dark  colored. 

The  plant  is  found  in  moist,  often  shaded  sites  in  the  foothills 
and  in  the  ponderosa  pine  and  aspen  types  in  the  mountains ;  often 
in  canyons  or  along  streams,  about  springs,  seeps  and  pools  of 
water,  chiefly  between  4,000  and  8,000  feet.  Flowering  period, 
depending  on  location,  from  late  April  to  early  August.  The  plant 
is  hardly  of  sufficient  abundance  or  palatability  to  have  any  par- 
ticular range  significance.  Ordinarily  it  is  eaten  slightly,  if  at  all, 
by  sheep  and  goats  and  ignored  by  cattle.  However,  sheep  some- 
times exhibit  a  fondness  for  the  flowers. 

Westernred  columbine  (Aquilegia  elegantula  Greene)  is  distrib- 
uted from  western  (chiefly  southwestern)  Colorado  south  into 
southeastern  Utah,  New  Mexico,  and  northern  Mexico.  It  is  a 
rather  small  plant,  averaging  not  more  than  1  foot  high,  with 
single  or  tufted  erect  stems  on  the  crown  of  a  woody,  usually 
branched  and  thickened  root.  The  root  leaves  are  twice  divided 
into  3's — or  9  leaflets — (biternate),  the  leaflets  small,  deeply 
3  cleft,  smooth,  rounded,  green  above,  and  bluish  beneath.  Flowers 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  165 

nodding,  often  solitary,  the  sepals  short,  sharp  tipped,  greenish 
or  scarlet  and  yellow,  the  spurs  scarlet,  straight,  about  1/2  to  %  of 
an  inch  long. 

Westernred  columbine  grows  in  the  mountains,  mostly  between 
elevations  of  about  7.000  and  10,000  feet.  It  is  found  chiefly  in 
moist  rich  soils  of  the  ponderosa  pine,  Engelmann  spruce,  and 
aspen  types,  and  often  on  the  face  of  cliffs  and  in  rocky  canyons 
or  on  subalpine  slopes.  It  flowers  from  May  to  August,  but  chiefly 
in  June.  Ordinarily  the  forage  value  of  this  plant  is  nothing  to 
slight  for  sheep  and  goats.  However,  on  a  range  on  the  Apache 
National  Forest  (Arizona)  the  palatability  has  been  reported  as 
poor  for  cattle  and  fair  for  sheep  and  goats.  Wooton  and  standley 
(21U),  recommend  it  for  cultivation  in  gardens  in  the  higher  parts 
of  New  Mexico. 

Yellow  columbine  [Aquilegia  flavescens  S.  Wats.,  syn.  A.  formosa 
var.  flavescens  (S.  Wats.)  Hook,  f.]  occurs  from  British  Columbia 
to  eastern  Oregon,  Idaho,  Utah,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Mon- 
tana. It  has  been  collected  on  national  forests  at  elevations  as  low 
as  1,775  feet  in  Washington  and  as  high  as  9,500  feet  in  Idaho. 
Typically  the  plants  are  smooth  or  nearly  so,  at  least  below,  but  in 
the  dwarfed  subalpine  form  (minor  Tidestrom)  may  be  quite  hairy. 
The  thin  leaves  are  twice  (sometimes  thrice)  ternately  divided; 
the  flowers  are  nodding  and  wholly  yellow  or  sometimes  the  sepals 
are  red  tinged,  the  petal  blades  (laminae)  cream  colored,  the  spurs 
shorter  than  the  sepals. 

Aquilegia  flavescens  is  botanically  close  to  A.  formosa,  but  the 
petal  blades  are  paler  and  longer  (6  to  10  mm.,  vice  1  to  6,  mostly 
3  to  5  mm.),  and  the  spurs  are  incurved  instead  of  straight  or  near- 
ly so.  Ordinarily  the  palatability  is  none  to  low.  This  plant  has 
been  observed  in  some  places  to  be  moderately  taken  by  elk ;  such 
nibbling  of  it  by  domestic  livestock  is  chiefly  by  sheep. 

Sitka  columbine  {Aquilegia  formosa  Fisch.)  is  a  perennial  herb, 
mostly  20  to  40  inches  high,  which  ranges  from  Alaska  to  Califor- 
nia, New  Mexico,  Utah,  Idaho,  and  Montana.  Strangely,  it  seems 
to  be  absent  from  Colorado  and  Wyoming.  The  books  indicate  that 
it  also  occurs  in  Siberia,  and  Fischer's  description  points  to  Kam- 
chatka as  the  type  locality,  but  this  would  appear  to  be  in  error ; 
the  plant  is  wholly  western  North  American,  as  Munz  (l-lfJ^)  and 
Hulten  (102)  have  observed. 

The  species  is  found  in  the  Sitka  spruce  type  in  Alaska,  near  sea 
level,  at  elevations  from  500  to  7,500  feet  in  the  Pacific  States,  and 
from  3,500  to  10,000  feet  in  the  Great  Basin  area  and  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. It  is  a  common  species  in  the  aspen  type  and  in  openings  in 
the  lodgepole  type,  but  it  may  be  present  in  a  great  variety  of  soils 
and  sites,  sometimes  being  associated  with  sagebrush,  ponderosa 
and  Jeffrey  pines,  Douglas-fir,  and  white  fir.  It  is  especially  at 
home  along  streambanks,  about  seeps,  springs,  and  ponds,  in 
meadows,  canyon  bottoms,  and  on  moist  wooded  mountain  slopes, 
particularly  in  loamy  soils. 

Sitka  columbine  has  nodding,  red,  fairly  large  (about  II/2  inches 
long)  flowers,  spreading  or  reflexed  dark-red  sepals  longer  than 


166  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  spurs,  and  relatively  short  yellow  petal  blades  (laminae).  In 
its  variety  California  columbine  [Acquilegia  formosa  var.  triincata 
(Fi8ch.  &  Meyer)  Baker,  syns,  A.  californica  Hartw.,  A.  truncata 
Fisch.  &  Meyer],  which  ranges  from  southern  Oregon,  through 
California  and  western  Nevada,  to  northern  Lower  California,  the 
spur  orifice  has  an  abruptly  cut  off  appearance  (truncate);  the 
sepals  and  spurs  are  often  yellow  tinged,  and  the  petal  blades  are 
very  short  ( 1  to  2  mm.  long) . 

Sitka  columbine  and  its  variants  form  one  of  the  most  common, 
abundant,  and  widely  distributed  of  western  columbines ;  they  are 
in  bloom  from  late  May  or  early  June  to  August.  As  forage  this 
species  is  of  more  value  for  sheep  than  for  cattle,  the  palatability 
varying  from  worthless  to  fair  or  sometimes  fairly  good.  It  is  of 
interest  that  the  same  observer  on  different  areas  of  the  same  na- 
tional forest  will  often  express  widely  divergent  opinions  on  the 
palatability  of  the  species ;  evidently  much  depends  on  associated 
species,  condition  of  the  range,  time  of  the  year,  and  other  factors. 

Utah  columbine  (Aquilegia  scopulorum  Tidestrom)  is  a  small 
plant,  4  to  8  inches  high,  occurring  from  middle  to  subalpine  eleva- 
tions in  the  mountains  of  Utah,  Reports  have  been  made  of  its 
occurrence  also  in  Nevada  and  southwestern  Wyoming  but  they 
appear  not  to  be  thoroughly  substantiated.  The  leaflets  are 
crowded,  %  of  an  inch  (15  mm.)  long  or  less,  the  sepals  pale  blue 
to  pale  purple,  the  petal  blades  (lamiyiae)  white,  and  the  slender 
spurs  1  to  2  inches  long.  It  has  been  reported  from  southwestern 
Utah,  where  collected  in  a  weed  type  near  a  stand  of  spruce  and 
fir,  as  50  percent  palatable  to  sheep  and  goats.  This  probably  re- 
flects unusual  conditions. 

Marshmarigold  (Caltha) 

This  genus,  represented  in  the  Far  West  by  three  species,  is  a 
group  of  smooth,  more  or  less  succulent  perennials,  with  simple, 
long-stalked,  kidney-shaped  (reniform)  or  heart-shaped  (cordate), 
chiefly  basal  leaves.  The  regular  flowers  are  showy,  white,  yel- 
low, pink,  or  occasionally  bluish,  without  petals  and  with  about  5 
to  12  petallike  sepals,  numerous  short-stalked  stamens,  and  pistils 
developing  into  clustered  podlike  fruits  (follicles)  splitting  open 
on  the  back  (vemtrally  dehiscent)  when  ripe  to  discharge  the  nu- 
m.erous  seeds.  The  plants,  when  fresh,  are  very  acrid  and  are  nor- 
mally distasteful  to  domestic  livestock;  probably  all  species  are 
more  or  less  poisonous  in  that  condition.  However,  when  dried,  as 
in  hay,  they  appear  to  lose  this  property  and  become  harmless. 
They  are  sometimes  cultivated  as  ornamentals. 

Caltha  is  a  classical  Latin  name  for  some  strong-smelling,  yel- 
low flowered  plant,  and  quite  probably  for  the  common  marsh- 
marigold  (C.  palustris  L.),  but  most  of  the  books  indicate  that  the 
word  means  marigold  which,  to  this  writer,  seems  illogical,  as 
marigold  (Tagetes)  is  a  New  World  genus  unknown  to  the  ancient 
Romans.  The  common  name  marshmarigold  is  hard  to  explain, 
because  the  plants  do  not  resemble  the  marigold  genus  in  the  least. 
Another  name  in  common  use  in  this  country  for  the  genus  is 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  167 

"cowslip."  The  English  "cowslip,"  a  name  familiar  in  literature, 
is  cowslip  primrose  (Primula  reris  L.)-.  an  entirely  different  plant. 

Twinflower  marshmarigold  (Caltlia  hi  flora  DC.)  is  a  common  in- 
habitant of  high  mountain  marshes  and  wet  meadows  from  Alaska 
to  the  ObTnpic  and  Cascade  Mountains  of  western  Washington  and 
the  Cascades  of  northwestern  Oregon.  Farther  south,  in  southern 
Oregon,  western  Nevada  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California,  it 
is  replaced  by  Howell  inarshniari«;olcl  [ssp.  hoivellii  (Hiith)  Abrams. 
syn.  C.  howeUii  (Huth)  Greene],  with  solitary  flowers  and  some- 
what wavy-margined  (repand-crenate)  leaves.  The  leaves  of  twin- 
flower  marshmarigold  are  rounded-kidney-shaped,  broader  than 
long,  about  1  to  3  inches  wide ;  the  naked  flower  stalks  (scapes)  are 
commonly  2,  though  sometimes  1  or  3,  erect  or  nearly  so.  2  to  10 
inches  high  and  longer  than  the  leaves.  Rather  frequently,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  leaf  or  leaflike  bract  on  the  stem  near  the  summit, 
from  the  axil  of  which  another  flower  may  be  produced,  so  that 
the  stem,  in  such  a  case,  is  technically  a  pednncle  from  such  leaf 
or  bract  upwards. 

The  5  to  10  petallike  sepals  are  of  an  oblong  type,  1/2  inch  long 
or  so,  white  or  somewhat  bluish  on  the  back,  the  stamens  yellowish. 
The  fruiting  pods  (follicles)  have  a  distinctly  stalklike  (stipitate) 
base  when  ripe.  The  flowering  period  is  late  May  or  June  into 
August.  Ordinarily  the  plant  is  avoided  by  domestic  livestock  and 
the  typical  habitat  is  normally  uninviting  to  sheep.  This  species 
is  thought  to  have  been  responsible  for  the  poisoning  of  15  head 
of  sheep  on  a  national-forest  range  in  Oregon. 

Elkslip  marshmarigold  (Caltha  leptosepala  DC.)  (fig.  37),  often 
called  "elkslip,"  occurs  in  high-altitude  mountain  bogs,  about  seeps 
and  springs,  along  streambanks  and  the  like,  from  Alaska  to  Al- 
berta and  Montana  and  south  to  Oregon  and,  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, to  New  Mexico.  In  the  large-orbicular-leaved  roundleaf 
marshmarigold  [var.  rofii/irfi/oh'a  Huth,  syn.  C.  rotiindifolia  (Huth) 
Greene]  it  occurs  in  the  Intermountain  area  and  in  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains of  northwest  Oregon, 

The  species  is  mostly  stemless  (scapose)  except  for  the  naked 
flower  stalks ;  the  leaves  are  heart  shaped,  longer  than  broad,  and 
with  a  shallow  sinus  ;  the  white  flowers  have  6  to  12  narrow,  oblong 
to  oblong-linear  sepals.^^  It  is  the  commonest  and  most  widespread 
of  the  western  marshmarigolds.  Ordinarily  this  plant,  which  is 
sometimes  locally  very  abundant,  is  not  grazed  by  livestock  if  any 
other  feed  is  available.  The  likelihood  is  that  it  possesses  the  toxic 
properties  known  to  occur  in  other  species  of  the  genus. 

Common  marshmarigold  (Caltha  palustris  L.),  of  Europe,  Asia 
and  eastern  North  America,  gets  as  far  west  as  Manitoba,  South 
Dakota,  and  Nebraska,  and  is  worthy  of  mention  because  of  the 
enormous  number  of  references  to  it  in  literature.  It  is  a  yellow- 
flowered  species  often  cultivated  as  an  ornamental.  It  has  a  con- 
siderable history  as  a  stock-poisoning  plant  in  Europe  and  contains 

29The  late  Supervisor  James  C.  Whitham  collected  a  bluish-flowered  specimen 
at  9,500  feet  on  the  Gallatin  National  Forest  (Montana)  and  stated  that  it 
represented  the  only  ones  of  that  color  he  had  ever  seen. 


168  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-487817 

Figure  37. — Elkslip  marshmarigold  (Caltha  leptosepala  DC).  Lower  right,  a 
cluster  of  fruits  (follicles). 


a  toxic  glucoside  (helleborin)  and  an  alkaloid  (jervin)  (123,  lU). 
It  appears  to  be  harmless  when  dried  but  is  known  to  have  poisoned 
and  even  produced  death  in  cattle  and  horses  and  also  to  have 
poisoned  human  beings.  Prominent  symptoms  of  C.  palustris  poi- 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  169 

soning  are  irritation  of  the  stomach  and  the  entire  alimentary 
tract,  vomiting,  and  bloody  urine. 

The  plant  appears  to  be  innocuous  or  nearly  so  when  it  first  comes 
up  in  the  spring,  the  toxicity  steadily  increasing  up  to  flowering 
and  fruiting  time.  However,  when  the  plant  is  cooked  it  is  ex- 
tensively used  as  a  potherb.  Fernald  and  Kinsey  (70)  speak  of  it 
as  being  "long  *  *  *  the  most  popular  spring  greens  in  New  Eng- 
land." The  stipules  and  mucilaginous  leaf  bases  are  first  carefully 
removed  and  the  herbage  thoroughly  boiled  at  least  once  and 
preferably  twice  to  remove  the  acridity.  It  is  then  palatable  and 
innocuous.  The  flower  buds  also  are  frequently  pickled  and  used 
as  a  substitute  for  capers. 

Bugbane  (Cimiciftiga) 

This  genus  is  worthy  of  mentioning  from  a  range  standpoint 
solely  because  of  the  known  active  chemical  properties  of  some  of 
its  members.  There  are  three  western  range  species.  Tall  bugbane 
(Cimiciftiga  elata  Nutt.)3o  is  found  from  British  Columbia  south  to 
Oregon,  chiefly  in  the  Coastal  Range.  Cutleaf  bugbane  or  Mt. 
Hood  bugbane  (C.  laciniata  S.  Wats.)  is  confined  to  the  Mount 
Hood  area  of  Oregon.  Arizona  bugbane  (C.  arizonica  S.  Wats.)  is 
known  only  from  Coconino  County,  Arizona. 

This  is  a  group  of  spectacular  tall  perennial  herbs,  with  large 
decompound  basal  and  alternate  stem  leaves.  The  small  white 
flowers  are  in  terminal  racemes  or  panicles ;  there  are  2  to  5  free, 
usually  petallike,  nonpersistent  sepals ;  usually  an  equal  number  of 
2-lobed,  clawed  petals,  numerous  stamens  with  threadlike  stalks 
(filaments),  and  1  to  8  pistils  becoming  in  fruit  an  umbellike  whorl 
of  small  pods  (follicles).  The  plants  typically  occur  in  moist  sites, 
such  as  along  or  near  streams  and  in  rich  woods.  They  appear 
to  be  unpalatable  to  domestic  livestock.  Frequently  grown  as 
ornamentals. 

An  eastern  species,  cohosh  bugbane  [Cimicifuga  racemosa  (L.) 
Nutt.],  known  also  as  "black  cohosh,"  "black  snakeroot,"  and  "rich- 
weed,"  is  an  official  medicinal  plant.  Its  thick  woody  roots  contain 
cimicifugin  which  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  dyspepsia,  rheuma- 
tism, and  menstrual  disorders.  Country  people  deem  is  useful  in 
the  treatment  of  snake  bite. 

Giodthread  (Corptis) 

There  are  two  species  of  goldthread  on  the  western  range.  They 
are  smooth,  small  herbs  perennial  from  slender  yellow  bitter- 
tasting  rootstocks  (rhizomes) ,  whence  another  common  name  "yel- 
lowroot."  The  leaves  are  wholly  basal  and  often  suggest  those  of 
a  strawberry  plant,  mostly  being  3  lobed  or  parted  or  divided  into 
3  leaflets.  Their  flowers,  solitary  or  few,  are  white,  greenish  or 
yellowish,  with  5  to  7  petallike  sepals,  about  the  same  number  of 
narrow  petals  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  these  are  not 

30The  Latin  generic  name  is  based  on  the  Old  World  use  of  the  plant  to  kill 
bedbugs  {cimex,  bedbug  +  fugo,  flee,  or  drive  away). 


170    AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK   ItU.  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

petals  but  .^taminodia,  or  sterile  stamens)  and  bear  nectar  pits  at 
the  middle  or  near  the  summit :  the  stamens  are  numerous,  the  3  to 
7  pistils  becomingr  in  fruit  an  umbellike  cluster  of  stalked  follicles 
containing  smooth  shiny  seeds. 

Cutleaf  iioKltliread  (Coptis  laciniata  A.  Gray)  grows  in  heavy 
moss-covered  dutf  under  Douglas-tir.  western  hemlock,  and  other 
coniferous  timber  from  southwestern  Washington  to  northern 
California  and  east  into  neighboring  Idaho.  It  has  glossy  ever- 
green leaves,  the  three  leaflets  rather  narrow  and  deeply  cut  or 
incised  and  sharp  toothed.  A  forest  supervisor  in  Idaho,  who  col- 
lected this  plant  (F.S.  Herb.  No.  2574)  for  identification,  reported 
as  follows:  "I  have  found  it  very  valuable  for  cattle.  It  is  *  '  ' 
found  in  greatest  abundance  in  heavy  stands  of  second  growth  red 
fir.  It  seems  to  root  more  in  the  duff  and  humus  than  in  the  mineral 
soil.  Where  cattle  can  reach  it  they  will  leave  good  bunch  grass  to 
feed  on  this  plant."'  In  a  later  letter  he  said :  "We  have  found  it  to 
be  of  great  value  for  fattening  cattle  on  the  range.  It  is  greedily 
sought  by  stock." 

\^'e!4tern  jroldthread  {Coptis  occidentalis  (Nutt.)  A.  Gray,  syn. 
Chnjsocoptis  occidcufalis  Xutt.].  with  the  3  leaflets  3  lobed  to  about 
the  middle,  occurs  in  moist  wooded  sites  from  British  Columbia  and 
Washington  to  Idaho  and  western  ^Montana.  Reported  as  abundant 
on  three  of  the  national  forests  in  ^lontana  and  "grazed  very  ex- 
tensively by  cattle." 

Common  iioldthroad  [Coptis  tri folia  (L.)  Salisb.]*  the  botanical 
type  of  the  genus,  although  listed  in  Rydberg's  Flora  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Adjacent  Plains  (ITS),  is  hardly  a  range  plant  but 
perhaps  should  be  mentioned  because  of  its  medicinal  nature  and 
the  possible  light  it  might  throw  on  the  chemical  properties  of  its 
range  congeners.  It  occurs  in  northern  and  montane  Europe  and 
Asia  and.  in  North  America,  from  Greenland  to  Alaska  and  south 
to  British  Columbia.  Iowa.  Minnesota.  Indiana,  and  North  Carolina. 
It  is  a  moist  woods  or  bog  plant,  with  three  evergreen  toothed  or 
shallowly  lobed  leaves. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  a  plant  of  such  wide  distribution  should 
be  variable  and  that  some  botanists  have  preferred  to  put  the 
Greenland,  eastern  North  American,  and  possibly  Alaskan  plant 
in  the  subspecies  groe)iIandica  (Oeder)  Hult.  ;syn.  Coptis  groen- 
landica  (Oeder)  Fernald;  :  Hulten  (10.2)  later  considered  that  these 
variations  hopelessly  intergrade.  The  plant  contains  two  alkaloids, 
hcrbcrinc  and  coptine,  itnd  the  rootstocks  and  whole  plant  are  the 
source  of  an  oflicial  drug  used  as  a  bitter  tonic  and  for  ulceration 
of  the  mouth,  which  recalls  Warren  B.  Horner's  blank  verse  Yellow 
Root:  "Back  in  the  hills  where  I  was  reared  There  was  a  kind  of 
plant  called  yellow  root.  People  chewed  and  gargled  it  For  colds 
and  sore  throat :  It  had  a  bitter  pucker  in  its  juice  That  left 
grimaces  for  an  hour  *  *  *" 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  171 

Larkspur  (Delphinium) 

Delphinhun^^  is  one  of  the  larger  and  more  important  plant 
genera  of  this  country.  Ewan,  whose  treatment  (65,  67)  of  the 
North  American  species  is  generally  followed,  attributes  61  species 
and  24  subspecies  of  larkspur  to  the  11  Far  Western  States.  Cali- 
fornia, with  29  species  and  12  subspecies,  is  the  center  of  distribu- 
tion ;  Oregon  follows  with  20  species  and  4  subspecies ;  then,  in 
order,  come :  Washington,  14  species  and  5  subspecies ;  Montana 
and  Wyoming,  with  10  species  and  4  subspecies  each ;  Nevada,  New 
Mexico  and  Utah,  with  10  species  and  3  subspecies  each ;  Colorado, 
9  species  and  4  subspecies ;  Idaho,  9  species  and  3  subspecies ;  and 
Arizona,  8  species  and  4  subspecies.  In  addition,  the  annual  Old 
World  rocket  larkspur  (D.  ajacis  L.)  is  locally  naturalized.  Two 
larkspurs  in  Alaska  are  not  found  in  the  United  States  proper: 
Bro>vTi8  larkspur  (D.  brotvnii  Rydb.),  a  small  plant,  and  Chamisso 
larkspur  (D.  chamissonis  Pritz.),  a  tall  plant. 

All  our  native  larkspurs  are  perennial  herbs.  The  occasionally 
naturalized  rocket  larkspur  (Delphinium  ajacis  L.)  is  an  annual. 
The  native  species  either  have  a  slender,  somewhat  evanescent 
stem  from  more  or  less  tuberlike  roots  or  the  stem  is  stouter  and 
more  persistent  either  from  a  stout  woody  crown  or  from  a  root- 
stock  with  fibrous  roots.  The  alternate  leaves  are  palmately  (like 
the  fingers  of  the  hand)  ribbed,  lobed  or  divided,  usually  either 
with  5  main  divisions  or  else  rounded,  fanlike  or  kidney  shaped 
and  often  with  3  lobes.  The  showy,  blue,  bluish,  white,  or  in  a  few 
species,  red  flowers  are  usually  in  a  terminal  raceme,  which  may 
be  loose  or  condensed,  branching  or  narrow  and  spikelike  and  some- 
times much  branched  and  paniculate. 

The  calyx  consists  of  5  irregular  colored  sepals,  the  uppermost 
one  produced  backward  into  a  spur ;  the  petals,  usually  4,  are  also 
irregular,  the  2  lower  ones  with  a  slender  claw  produced  back- 
wards inside  the  spur,  the  2  lower  with  a  notched  or  2-cleft  blade 
usually  of  the  same  color  as  the  sepals ;  there  are  numerous  stamens 
and  mostly  3  pistils  sometimes  fused  into  1.  The  fruiting  "pods" 
(follicles)  are  erect  or  spreading,  with  numerous  small  seeds.  The 
leaves  are  often  maplelike  or  currantlike  and,  before  flowering,  it 
is  sometimes  easy  to  confuse  larkspurs  with  monkshood  and  wild 
geraniums.  The  spur  of  larkspur  flowers  is,  of  course,  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  hood  of  monkshoods,  while  the  latter  have  pithy 
stems  instead  of  being  hollow  as  in  the  case  of  larkspurs. 

Larkspurs  are  common  in  the  foothills  and  mountains  in  the 
Western  States,  chiefly  occurring  in  well-drained  loamy  soil  in 

^^Delphinium  is  derived  from  Greek  delphinion,  a  name  used  for  larkspur  by 
Dioscorides  Pedanius,  celebrated  1st  centui-y  B.  C.  Greek  physician  and  herbal- 
ist. According  to  the  manuals  the  word  ultimately  derives  from  delphinos 
(dolphin's)  because  of  a  supposed  resemblance  of  larkspur  flowers  to  a  con- 
ventionalized dolphin.  However,  it  seems  not  unlikely  that  Dioscorides  was 
influenced  in  this  nomenclature  by  the  medicinal  properties  of  an  Old  World 
larkspur  and  the  fact  that  Delphinios  was  a  common  epithet  of  Apollo,  the  god 
of  medicine.  The  common  name  larkspur,  of  course,  originated  in  England, 
where  the  spur  of  the  flower  suggested  the  long  spurlike  claw  on  the  hind  toe 
of  the  male  skylark  {Alauda  arvensis  L.). 


172    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

mountain  parks,  grasslands,  sagebrush  areas,  and  in  clumps  of 
aspen  or  in  partial  shade  of  other  trees.  The  tall  larkspurs  often 
reach  their  greatest  development  and  abundance  at  the  higher 
elevations  in  rich,  moist  loamy  soils  along  creek  banks,  in  the  heads 
of  valleys,  in  high  basins  or  on  gentle  slopes  usually  in  more  or  less 
shaded  sites  and  frequently  as  the  undergrowth  of  open  aspen  or 
conifer  timber.  The  plants  sometimes  occur  as  more  or  less  scat- 
tered individuals  over  large  areas  but  are  frequently  in  dense,  rank 
stands  up  to  several  acres  in  extent.  The  low  larkspurs  are  usually 
more  abundant  at  the  lower  altitudes  of  the  mountain  ranges  in 
the  more  open  and  exposed  types.  They  are  characteristically  seen 
as  quite  widely  scattered  individuals;  however,  sometimes  they 
are  of  sufficient  abundance  to  constitute  a  material  amount  of  the 
vegetation.  Due  to  the  wide  rang-e  of  elevations  within  which  lark- 
spurs grow,  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  time  of  their  grov^h 
and  development. 

Generally  larkspurs  are  among  the  very  first  plants  of  the  habitat 
to  commence  growth  in  the  spring.  During  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  the  large,  light  green  bunches  of  tall  larkspur  are  very 
conspicuous  above  the  associated  species.  These  plants  begin  flow- 
ering as  early  as  June  and  often  continue  well  into  September.  The 
low  larkspurs  usually  bloom  in  May  or  June  and  soon  after  mature, 
dry  up,  and  largely  disappear.  Their  blue  flowers  are  often  very 
noticeable  as  they  appear  above  the  other  vegetation  early  in  the 
growing  season. 

Larkspurs  probably  represent  the  most  important  poisonous 
plants  to  cattle  of  any  occurring  on  the  high  summer  ranges  of  the 
West,  although  the  locos  are  generally  considered  to  take  first  place 
among  stock-poisoning  plants  for  the  West  as  a  whole.  Horses  may 
be  poisoned  by  larkspur,  but  losses  are  rare  since  they  seldom  eat 
the  plant  in  quantity  sufficient  to  cause  serious  consequences.  While 
many  larkspurs  are  known  to  be  poisonous  to  cattle,  it  is  question- 
able whether  all  species  are  poisonous  under  range  conditions.  How- 
ever, it  is  the  safest  policy  to  regard  them  all  as  suspicious  pending 
full  knowledge  concerning  them. 

The  greatest  loss  of  cattle  occurs  during  the  early  spring  and 
summer,  because  larkspur  produces  an  abundance  of  forage  in  ad- 
vance of  other  plants  and  begins  growth  on  the  higher  summer 
ranges  soon  after  the  snow  melts.  This  group  creates  a  serious 
problem  in  managing  cattle  on  the  range,  because  so  many  lark- 
spurs are  poisonous  both  before  and  after  blooming.  Under  range 
conditions  sheep  are  seldom  poisoned  by  larkspur,  and  it  is  com- 
mon for  sheep  to  utilize  larkspur  areas,  the  palatability  for  sheep 
often  being  good. 

Beath  (12)  voices  the  opinion  that  "larkspur  in  full  bloom  is 
not  very  poisonous  to  sheep  due  to  the  fact  that  the  water  content 
of  the  plant  is  lower,  and  also  because  the  poison  becomes  less 
soluble  in  water  as  the  season  advances,  so  that  sheep  grazing  on 
the  young  larkspur  are  liable  to  become  poisoned,  and  especially  if 
the  plants  are  moist  *  *  *  Young  larkspur  is  eight  times  more  poi- 
sonous than  the  mature  growth.  The  poisons  isolated  at  this  [  Wyo. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  173 

Agr.  Expt.]  station  from  young  larkspur  and  from  larkspur  in 
full  bloom  clearly  prove  the  above  statement." 

All  parts  of  larkspur  plants  are  poisonous  (129),  but  it  is  usually 
the  leaves,  stems,  and  flowers  that  are  taken  by  cattle.  The  seeds 
are  very  poisonous  but  are  seldom  eaten.  The  low  species  continue 
poisonous  throughout  their  whole  life  period  while  the  tall  ones 
partly  lose  their  toxic  properties  after  blossoming  (ISJ^).  The  most 
danger  from  both  forms  occurs  during  the  early  part  of  the  season 
chiefly  because  they  make  up  such  a  comparatively  large  and  the 
most  succulent  part  of  the  vegetation  at  that  time  of  year. 

In  the  treatment  of  poisoned  animals  Marsh,  Clawson,  and 
Marsh  (135)  report  that  beneficial  results  usually  are  obtained  by 
injecting  a  solution  of  1  grain  physostigmin  salicylate,  2  grains 
pilocarpin  hydrochloride,  and  Vii  grain  of  strychnine  sulfate,  with 
a  hypodermic  syringe,  preferably  in  the  shoulder.  The  above 
amount  dissolved  in  approximately  1  tablespoon  of  water  is  the 
proper  dose  for  an  animal  weighing  500  to  600  pounds.  The  for- 
mula should  be  doubled  for  an  animal  of  1,000  pounds.  The  syringe 
used  in  administering  blackleg  vaccine  will  serve. 

Numerous  larkspur-eradication  projects  have  been  conducted  in 
the  West,  particularly  with  Barbey  larkspur  (Delphinium  harheyi 
Huth)  and  Sierra  larkspur  (D.  glaucum  S.  Wats.).  Eradication  has 
been  attempted  both  by  grubbing  and  chemical  means.  In  grub- 
bing larkspur  special  care  must  be  exercised  to  assure  that  all 
plants,  including  the  seedlings  and  other  small  specimens,  are  dug. 
It  is  imperative  that  enough  of  the  root  system  be  removed  to  pre- 
vent the  remnant  from  sprouting.  This  implies  grubbing  every 
larkspur  plant  discernible  and  removing  the  roots  to  a  depth  of  not 
less  than  8  inches,  including  all  side  roots  as  well  as  the  base  of  the 
plant. 

Workmen  must  make  sure  that  no  roots  grubbed  fall  back  into 
the  hole  and  that  all  dirt  is  shaken  from  them  to  prevent  possible 
regrowth.  It  is  outstandingly  important  to  burn  all  plants  after 
removal  to  prevent  their  consumption  by  cattle.  Regardless  of  the 
care  exercised  in  digging  Barbey  and  other  larkspurs,  it  is  always 
necessary  to  go  over  the  area  the  following  year  to  remove  any 
plants  that  have  been  missed.  Usually  a  second  follow-up  is 
necessary  to  eradicate  plants  developing  from  seed  stored  from 
previous  seasons  (3). 

Spraying  with  sodium  chlorate  in  neutral,  acid,  or  alkaline 
solutions  of  21/2  percent  or  more  and  upwards  during  the  active 
growing  period  of  larkspur  is  effective  but  risky  because  of  the 
flammability  of  this  chemical  and  its  toxicity  in  quantity  to  live- 
stock (53).  A  salty  taste  increases  its  attractiveness  and  en- 
courages consumption  of  treated  plants.  Calcium  chlorate,  while 
less  effective  than  sodium  chlorate,  has  also  been  successfully  used 
in  chemical  eradication  of  larkspur  and  has  the  advantage  of  being 
neither  poisonous  nor  flammable.  These  soluble  chemicals  are  easily 
applied,  kill  both  tops  and  roots  of  the  poisonous  plants  and  thus 
prevent  sprouting.  The  addition  of  a  little  whale-oil  soap  of  gly- 
cerine facilitates  the  uniform  distribution  and  retention  of  the 


174  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

solution  upon  the  leaf  surfaces.  More  recently,  2,  4-D  and  2,  4, 
5-T  have  been  partially  successful  in  killing  larkspur  and,  at  the 
present  time,  of  course,  research  in  developing  new  weedkillers  is 
very  active. 

Horticulturally,  larkspurs  rank  among  the  most  important  of 
herbaceous  perennial  ornamentals.  The  American  Delphinium 
Society  publishes  an  ornate  journal,  its  "Bulletin."  The  literature 
on  these  plants  is  enormous ;  among  the  most  important  works  are 
those  by  Bailey  (9),  Bishop  (23),  Leeming  (117),  Phillips  (156), 
and  Wilde  (210).  The  ripe  seeds  of  the  Old  World  stavesacre  lark- 
spur (Delphinium  staphisagria  L.),  containing  various  alkaloids 
including  delphinine,  stophisagrin,  etc.,  are  an  official  drug  used  in 
pediculosis  and  as  a  heart  depressant. 

Larkspurs  are  popularly  divided  in  range  country  into  two 
categories:  Low  (and  more  or  less  evanescent)  larkspurs,  and  tall 
larkspurs.  However,  there  are  many  species  of  an  intermediate 
character  and,  for  convenience,  the  14  species  annotated  here  are 
placed  in  three  categories :  Low,  medium,  and  tall. 

Low  Larkspurs 
(Average  height:  less  than  1  foot) 

Here  belong  a  group  of  larkspurs  of  low  stature,  often  with 
tuberous  roots  and  weak  stems,  which  come  up  early  in  the  spring 
and  frequently  dry  up  and  disappear  early  in  the  season — whence 
called  "spring"  larkspurs.  These  larkspurs  can  cause  heavy  losses 
of  cattle  on  spring  and  early  summer  ranges.  They  are  often  grazed 
moderately  by  sheep  and  cattle  but  very  seldom  by  horses.  No 
known  losses  of  horses  have  occurred  on  the  range  from  "spring" 
larkspur  poisoning,  and  the  suspected  sheep  losses  reported  here 
under  slim  larkspur  appear  to  be  the  only  ones  recorded  for  that 
class  of  livestock. 

These  species  are  more  palatable  to  sheep  than  to  cattle  and  are 
especially  likely  to  be  grazed  extensively  when  little  other  feed  is 
available.  Sheep  generally  prefer  grasses  and  other  weeds  to  the 
low  larkspurs,  and  on  some  ranges  in  Idaho  and  Nevada  these 
"spring"  larkspurs  are  regarded  as  unpalatable  to  livestock.  Due 
to  the  early  seeding  and  subsequent  dying  down  of  the  true 
"spring"  larkspurs  (i.e.,  those  which,  like  Delphinium  depaupera- 
tum  and  D.  nuttallianum,  have  low  weak  stems  tapering  to  a  hair- 
like point  above  the  roots)  on  the  range,  it  is  usually  safe  to  graze 
cattle  after  the  first  of  July  on  areas  that  produce  large  quantities 
of  these  species,  unless  normal  plant  development  is  delayed  by  un- 
favorable weather  or  other  conditions.  The  following  species  are 
characteristic  of  this  group. 

1.  Little  larkspur  (Delphinium  bicolor  Nutt.)  (fig.  38)  occurs 
from  British  Columbia,  Alberta,  Saskatchewan,  and  North  Dakota 
to  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  and  south  to  Wyoming  (ap- 
parently not  in  Colorado),  Utah,  Nevada,  and  Oregon  (apparently 
not  in  California).  It  is  found  on  medium-dry  to  moist  sites  on 
plains  and  in  the  mountains  but  grows  best  in  rich  black  sandy 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  I75 


F-299476 

Figure  38.— Little  larkspur 
{Delphinium  bicolor  Nutt.). 
Dissection  of  corolla  and 
cluster  of  fruiting  follicles 
at  right. 


176  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

loams  where  there  is  sufficient  moisture.  It  occupies  soils  of  both 
limestone  and  granitic  origin,  in  sunny  weed  types  or  open,  partly 
shaded  timber,  and  at  elevations  from  about  3,000  to  nearly  10,000 
feet. 

The  plant  is  about  4  to  14  inches  high,  more  or  less  fine-hairy  at 
least  above,  perennial  from  an  elongated,  slender,  woody-fibrous 
taproot.  The  leaves  are  few  and  spreading,  basal  or  nearly  so, 
varying  in  outline  from  kidney  shaped  to  rounded.  The  flowers  are 
large,  the  sepals  unequal,  the  two  small  upper  petals  white  or  pale 
yellowish  with  purple  lines — whence  the  scientific  name  bicolor. 
The  plant  is  variable  and  at  least  three  forms  or  varieties  are  rec- 
ognized. It  is  one  of  the  earliest  appearing  wild  flowers,  frequently 
blooming  at  the  edge  of  snowbanks  in  the  mountains. 

On  many  ranges  little  larkspur  is  relatively  abundant,  and  during 
the  early  spring  it  forms  a  very  conspicuous  part  of  the  vegeta- 
tion. Because  all  parts  of  the  plant  are  quite  toxic  to  cattle,  its 
extensive  use  results  in  some  losses  of  that  class  of  livestock,  es- 
pecially in  Montana,  where  the  species  is  rather  plentiful.  Feeding 
experiments  with  sheep  did  not  produce  fatal  results,  and  under 
range  conditions  little  larkspur  apparently  is  not  poisonous  to  that 
kind  of  livestock  (13^,  135)  ;  in  fact,  the  plant  is  usually  considered 
fairly  good  sheep  forage.  It  is  possible,  of  course,  that  bad  results 
could  follow  if  very  hungry  sheep,  after  being  driven  some  distance, 
were  allowed  to  gorge  themselves  in  an  extensive  patch  of  the 
plant.  Fortunately,  cattle  losses  are  easily  preventable  by  pro- 
hibiting entry  of  those  animals  to  infested  ranges  until  the  plant, 
which  matures  early,  has  dried  up  or  until  more  palatable  forage 
is  available. 

The  plant  blooms  in  May  and  June  or,  at  the  higher  elevations, 
this  may  extend  to  July  and  early  August.  Being  perhaps  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  small  American  larkspurs,  this  species  is  fre- 
quently cultivated  as  an  ornamental.  Early  settlers  in  the  West 
commonly  used  the  seeds  of  this  species  as  poison  for  exterminating 
lice  and  other  vermin. 

2.  Yellowtinge  larkspur  {Delphinium  decorum  Fisch.  &  Mey.) 
is  an  essentially  coastal  or  near-coastal  California  plant,  low  but 
rather  stout,  mostly  3  to  7  inches  (rarely  12  inches)  high,  perennial 
from  a  cluster  of  fleshy  tuberous  roots,  and  occupying  open  grassy 
slopes,  ravines,  and  woodland-chaparral  types.  It  was  originally 
collected  in  the  Bodega  Bay  area  of  Sonoma  County  in  a  then  Rus- 
sian colony.  Fischer  (1782-1854)  and  Meyer  (1795-1855),  the 
authors  of  the  species,  were  Russian  botanists. 

In  the  ssp.  tracyi  Ewan,  Tracy  larkspur,  the  species  extends  to 
Josephine  County,  southwestern  Oregon.  The  stems  of  typical 
D.  decorum  are  more  or  less  beset  with  crisp  white  hairs ;  the  flow- 
ers appear  March  to  June.  The  subspecies  tracyi  differs  from  typi- 
cal decorum  in  having  a  different  range  (more  in  the  Inner  Coast 
Ranges  than  maritime) ,  in  having  the  leaves  more  or  less  palmately 
dissected  (instead  of  3  parted),  the  primary  divisions  again  di- 
vided (instead  of  entire  or  nearly  so),  and  the  stems  are  smoother. 

Delphinium,  decorum  is  frequently  confused  with  spreading  lark- 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  177 

spur  [D.  patens  Benth.,  syn.  D.  decorum  var.  patens  (Benth.)  A. 
Gray]  and  vice  versa,  a  California  species  with  about  four  well- 
marked  subspecies.  It  is  a  more  typically  montane  (Sierra  Nevada, 
etc.)  California  species,  growing  in  grass,  sage-juniper-weed,  pon- 
derosa  pine,  and  aspen-willow  types  between  elevations  of  about 
1,000  and  8,000  feet,  often  with  an  elongated  taproot,  and  differing 
chiefly  in  being  slim  stemmed;  the  flowers  more  numerous  (6  to 
15,  instead  of  1  to  5  or  rarely  6  to  8)  in  the  raceme;  the  3-parted 
leaves  larger  (4  to  9  cm.,  instead  of  up  to  4  cm.  wide),  and  the 
upper  petals  not  mitten  shaped  (i.e.,  without  a  distinct  subapical 
lower  lobe).  D.  patens  is  considered  poisonous  to  cattle  if  eaten  in 
quantity. 

3.  Slim  larkspur  (Delphinium  depauperatum  Nutt.),  one  of  the 
smallest  of  American  larkspurs,  was  originally  known  from  the 
Blue  Mountains  of  northeastern  Oregon  and  ranges  from  British 
Columbia  and  Alberta  to  California,  Nevada,  and  Idaho.  It  is 
perennial  from  a  short,  vertical  rootstock  or  irregularly  almost 
tuberous  roots;  the  slim,  delicate,  often  reclining  stems  are  21/0  to 
6  or  occasionally  as  much  as  14  inches  high  and  unbranched,  dis- 
articulating above  the  roots.  The  thin  leaves  are  few  (1  to  3), 
small,  often  less  than  1  inch  though  sometimes  2^2  inches  wide,  the 
outline  somewhat  fan  or  kidney  shaped,  divided  into  3  to  5  main 
divisions  (pedately  palmatifid) .  The  small  dark  blue  flowers  have 
a  disproportionately  long  spur  (8.5  to  15  mm.  long)  and  are  few  in 
number  (1  to  7)  in  the  raceme.  The  fruiting  pods  (follicles)  are 
smooth,  erect,  about  1/0  inch  long. 

Slim  larkspur  is  one  of  the  earliest  to  appear  in  the  spring, 
flowering  from  May  to  August,  and  fruiting  August  to  October 
(depending  largely  on  site  conditions).  It  occupies  a  great  variety 
of  sites,  including  dry  meadows,  lake  and  stream  beds,  deep  rich 
loams,  weed,  sagebrush,  juniper,  conifer  and  aspen  types  at  eleva- 
tions from  1,000  to  9,000  feet.  Its  palatability  to  sheep  varies  from 
low  to  fairly  good. 

On  the  Challis  National  Forest  (Idaho)  it  is  reported  that  cattle 
are  occasionally  poisoned  by  slim  larkspur  but,  even  more,  by  tall 
larkspur,  which  is  locally  abundant.  In  many  places  cattle  appear 
to  avoid  the  plant.  It  was  observed  to  be  occasionally  eaten  by  deer 
on  the  Sequoia  National  Forest  (California).  Slim  larkspur  was 
collected  on  the  Colville  National  Forest  (northeastern  Washing- 
ton) in  an  area  where  sheep  losses  occurred.  And  on  an  area  at 
8,500  feet  elevation  on  the  Wallowa  National  Forest  (northeastern 
Oregon)  where  many  sheep  died  from  poison,  no  other  poisonous 
plant  than  this  could  be  found. 

These  reports  are  of  interest  in  view  of  published  statements  to 
the  effect  that  range  sheep  or  horse  losses  from  low,  or  "spring" 
larkspurs  are  unknown  (13J^,  135).  Two  larkspurs  frequently  con- 
fused with  slim  larkspur  are  Columbia  and  Nuttall  larkspurs. 
Columbia  larkspur  {Delphinium  nuttallii  A.  Gray,  syn.  D.  columbi- 
anum  Greene)  occurs  in  the  lower  Columbia  River  valley  of  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon  and  was  originally  collected  by  the  famous  nat- 
uralist and  explorer  Thomas  Nuttall  in  1834  "along  and  near  the 


178    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  1(U,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Columbia  River  above  The  Dalles ;"  it  j?rows  erect  from  a  rounded 
tuber,  is  16  to  24  inches  hig-h,  fine-hairy,  and  has  a  spikelike  in- 
florescence of  dark  blue  flowers.  Niittall  larkspur  [D.  nnttallianum 
Pritz.,  syn.  D.  paitcifloriim  Nutt.,  7wt  D.  Don  nor  Reichenb.]  ranges 
from  British  Columbia  to  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  Wyoming, 
Montana,  and  Idaho.  It  has  a  slender  v^eak  stem  5  to  12  or  some- 
times 18  inches  high  and  a  cluster  of  tuberlike  roots.  It  is  very 
close  botanically  to  D.  depauperatum  but  averages  taller  and  has 
larger  and  nodding  flowers,  the  sepals  averaging  7.5  mm.  (instead 
of  5  to  8  mm.)  long.  More  information  is  needed  about  the  values 
of  these  two  species,  but  they  appear  to  be  about  the  same  as  those 
of  D.  depauperatiim. 

4.  Menzies  larkspur  (Delphinium  menziesii  DC.)"^^  (fig-  39), 
also  known  as  "spring  larkspur,"  as  now  received  (65)  has  a  rather 
restricted  range,  in  Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia,  eastern 
coastal  Washington,  and  the  islands  of  Puget  Sound.  It  is  not  in 
Oregon  except  in  the  subspecies  pyramidale  Ewan,  which  tends  to 
be  a  stouter  plant,  the  upper  part  hoary  or  glandular-hairy,  the 
leaves  larg-er  and  thicker,  the  lower  flower  stalks  (pedicels)  longer, 
more  (12  to  20)  flowers,  and  the  fruiting  pods  (follicles)  more 
spreading. 

Menzies  larkspur  is  a  small  plant  perennial  from  a  rather  shal- 
low cluster  of  tuberous  roots.  The  stems  are  soft-pubescent  with 
spreading  white  hairs  at  least  in  the  upper  part;  the  palmately 
cleft  or  divided  leaves  vary  considerably  in  shape  and  size  but  tend 
to  have  wedgelike  divisions ;  the  blue  flowers  are  usually  few  (5  to 
10)  and  rather  large  and  showy,  the  sepals  10  to  17  mm,  (i/j  inch 
or  more)  long,  the  spur  rather  thick,  the  fruits  (follicles)  tending 
to  spread  when  ripe. 

Published  and  other  economic  observations  on  Menzies  larkspur 
are  usually  more  or  less  confused  with  the  related  little  larkspur 
(Delphinium  hicolor)  and  particularly  with  Nelson  larkspur  (D. 
nelsonii  Greene),  a  far  more  widely  distributed  species  named  in 
honor  of  the  late  Prof.  Aven  Nelson  of  the  University  of  Wyoming. 
Nelson  larkspur  ranges  from  Oregon,  Idaho,  western  Montana,  and 
the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  to  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Utah,  and 
Nevada.  Apparently  it  is  absent  from  Washington  and  California 
but,  in  the  form  pinetorum  (Tidestrom)  Ewan  (syn.  D.  pinetorum 
Tidestrom)  it  occurs  in  Arizona;  that  form  is  more  dwarf  (mostly 
4  to  6  inches — rarely  14  inches  high),  with  small  gray,  ashy-hairy 
leaves  up  to  %  of  an  inch  wide  "having  a  collapsed  appearance," 
and  smaller  flowers ;  it  is  found  in  the  ponderosa  pine  and  lodgepole 
pine  types  of  Arizona  and  Colorado. 

Typical  Nelson  larkspur  differs  from  typical  Menzies  larkspur 
largely  in  having  smoother  stems  (thinly  puberulent  or  almost 
hairless  in  the  inflorescence),  in  having  smaller,  scarcely  showy 


"'-The  species  commemorates  Archibald  Menzies  (1754-1842),  surgeon- 
naturalist  with  Capt.  Vancouver,  who  discovered  and  collected  the  plant  in  the 
1790's  "in  Nova-Georgia" — presumably  in  the  Straits  of  Georgia  area  (be- 
tween Vancouver  Island  and  the  coast  of  southwest  British  Columbia  and 
perhaps  extending  into  the  upper  Puget  Sound  region). 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN   RANGE  FORBS 


179 


Figure  39. — Menzies  larkspur 
{Delphinium  vienziesii 
DC).  Individual  flower 
(opened),  cluster  of  folli- 
cles, and  individual  leaf  at 
right. 


180  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

llowers  (the  sepals  11  to  15  mm.  long)  and  with  usually  more  than 
10  in  the  racemes.  It  resembles  Menzies  larkspur  in  having  a  clus- 
ter (though  usually  fewer)  of  tuberlike  roots  and  the  sepals  nearly 
equal,  both  differing  from  little  larkspur,  which  has  slender,  more 
or  less  elongated  and  woody-fibrous  roots,  and  the  sepals  distinctly 
unequal  in  size. 

Nelson  larkspur  is  typically  a  plant  of  the  mountains,  growing 
at  altitudes  from  2,000  feet  or  so  in  northern  Idaho  and  other  more 
northern  parts  of  its  range  up  to  elevations  as  high  as  10,500  feet 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  especially  the  more  southern  part.  The 
species  grows  in  numerous  associations,  in  aspen,  lodgepole  pine 
openings,  and  in  the  sagebrush,  oakbrush,  and  ponderosa  pine 
belts,  but  is  especially  characteristic  of  open  grass-weed-brush 
areas.  Frequent  associates  are  lupines,  bluegrasses,  wheatgrasses, 
and  rabbitbrushes.  It  inhabits  a  variety  of  soils — dry  to  moist, 
shallow  and  sandy,  gravelly,  or  rocky,  to  deep  rich  loams  or  heavy 
clays. 

Medium  Larkspurs 
(Average  height:  about  15  to  25  inches) 

This  is  an  artificial  and  arbitrary  group,  averaging  somewhat 
midway  in  size  between  the  low,  or  "spring"  larkspurs,  not  evanes- 
cent and  too  small  to  be  included  in  ''tall"  larkspurs.  Of  course, 
individual  intergrades  occur.  The  species  annotated  here  are  rep- 
resentative of  this  group. 

5.  Anderson  larkspur  (Delphinium  andersonii  A.  Gray)^"'  ranges 
in  dry  to  medium  moist  sites  from  central  and  southern  Oregon  to 
California,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Idaho.  Its  altitudinal  range  is  main- 
ly between  about  4,000  and  8,000  feet,  often  in  gravelly  or  rocky 
loams,  on  brushy  "desert"  flats,  in  sagebrush  types  and  somewhat 
alkaline  mountain  valleys.  It  is  an  erect,  rather  stout  perennial, 
from  a  wide-spreading,  woody-fibrous  rootcrown ;  the  stems  are 
single  or  few,  rather  brittle,  smooth,  often  shiny,  straw-colored  to 
bluish  or  purplish,  8  to  24  inches  high.  The  leaves  are  mostly  in  a 
basal  tuft,  the  main  divisions  often  overlapping  or  crowded. 

The  inflorescence  is  crowded,  usually  5  to  10  flowered,  short  but 
elongating  in  fruit;  the  flower  color  varies  from  blue  or  purplish 
to  whitish,  the  thick  spur  usually  shorter  than  the  other  sepals. 
The  fruits  (follicles)  are  from  a  little  over  1-2  to  a  little  over  1  inch 
long.  The  flow^ering  period  is  mainly  from  early  May  to  early  July. 
The  palatability  of  this  species  to  sheep  is  ordinarily  rated  fairly 
good.  On  overgrazed  range  in  the  Intermountain  Region,  it  is  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  early  spring  losses  of  steers  and  cows.  The 
Nevada  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  issued  a  special  bulletin 


'■'The  plant  commemorates  its  discoverer.  Dr.  Charles  Lewis  Anderson 
(1827-1910),  a  physician  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  Carson  City,  Nev.,  and,  later, 
Santa  Cruiz,  Calif.  One  of  his  hobbies  was  botany,  and  many  western  plants 
bear  his  name.  A  biographical  sketch  of  Anderson,  with  portrait,  by  Prof. 
Jepson,  appeared  in  Madrono  1 :  214-216.   1929. 


NOTES  OX  WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS  181 

on  the  plant,  with  a  colored  plate,  and  notes  on  its  occurrence, 
characteristics,  symptoms  of  poisoned  animals,  etc.   (73). 

6.  !>lenfler   larki-pur    (Delphinium    diversifolium    Greene)    was 

orig-inally  described  from  "mountains  about  the  headwaters  of  the 
Humboldt  River  in  eastern  Nevada"  and  has  been  much  confused 
in  the  books  with  D.  dtpau.peratum  Xutt.  and  D.  nuttaUiauum 
Pritzel.  two  small,  chiefly  Northwestern  larkspurs.  The  typical 
form  occurs  in  subalpine  meadows  and  on  slopes  and  ridges  be- 
tween about  8.000  and  10.000  feet  in  the  Ruby  Mountains  of  Ne- 
vada, but  in  the  subspecies  harneyense  Ewan.  which  averages  a  few 
inches  taller  and  has  broader  leaves  and  larger  flowers,  it  extends 
into  Oregon.  Idaho,  and  California. 

This  is  a  very  slender,  often  bluish  (glaucous)  plant  from  a  slim, 
spindle-shaped  root,  the  leaves  few.  basal  or  nearly  so  and  deeply 
3  cleft :  in  the  typical  form  it  is  seldom  over  14  inches  high  ;  the  blue 
flowers  have  slender  spurs  about  i  o  inch  long ;  the  fruiting  pods 
are  straight,  erect,  and  glandular-hairy.  Slender  larkspur  occurs 
in  both  moist  and  dry  sites.  The  subspecies  Jiarneifcnse  has  been 
reported  to  be  most  toxic  to  cattle  when  the  ground  is  damp  enough 
for  them  to  pull  the  plant  up  by  the  root. 

7.  Orange  larkspur  (^Delphinium  nudicaule  Torr.  &  Gray)  oc- 
curs from  southwestern  Oregon  to  California,  chiefly  in  the  Coast 
Ranges  from  the  Siskiyous  to  Marin  and  Santa  Cruz  Counties  and 
also  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  but  ''rare."  It  has  an  elongated,  rather 
thin  and  vertical,  not  fleshy  rootstock.  free  from  pubescence  or 
slightly  hairy,  the  stem  6  to  30  inches  (rarely  3  feet)  high,  often 
bluish  (glaucous)  and  somewhat  swollen  (fistulous). 

The  inflorescence  is  a  loose,  open,  2-  to  12-flowered  raceme,  the 
flowers  typically  orange  red — sometimes  red — but  usually  more  or 
less  tinged  with  greenish  or  orange.  1  to  II4  inch  long,  including 
the  usually  straight  spur,  which  is  nearly  half  again  as  long  as  the 
other  sepals.  The  fruits  are  mostly  smooth,  divergent-curving.  1  o 
to  1  inch  long,  somewhat  narrowed  at  the  base.  The  plant  occurs 
mainly  between  elevations  of  about  900  and  6.000  feet,  in  both  dry 
sandy-gravelly-rocky  and  rich  humus  soils,  flowering  from  March 
to  July.   In  general  the  palatability  appears  to  be  low. 

Orange  larkspur  is  reported  to  be  poisonous  to  cattle  on  the 
Klamath  National  Forest  (California).  It  is  also  reported  to  have 
narcotic  and  soporific  properties  and  to  need  scientific  study  (151, 
180).  Chesnut  (3S)  mentions  that  the  Calpella  Indians  call  this 
species  "Soma  yem,"  which  means  "sleep  root."  and  that  they  use 
it  to  cause  an  opponent  to  become  stupid  while  gambling.  In  So- 
noma County.  (Talifornia.  at  lower  elevations,  occurs  the  related 
Sonoma  larkspur  (D.  luteum  Heller).  It  is  a  smaller  plant,  with 
no  or  fewer  stem  leaves,  and  cream-colored  flowers.  Some  botanists 
place  it  under  the  varietal  name  luteum  (Heller)  Jepson. 

8.  Baresteni  larkspur  (Delphinium  scaposum  Greene)  inhabits 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  and  occurs  northward  to  southwestern 
Colorado,  southern  Utah,  and  Nevada.  It  is  8  to  24  inches  high. 
smooth  or  finely  pubescent,  from  a  slender,  often  elongated  and 
branching,  woody  rootstock  often  with  numerous  fibrous  roots. 


182  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  herbage  is  pale  green,  the  mostly  three-lobed  leaves  mainly 
basal,  giving  the  scapose  (leafless-stemmed)  appearance  referred 
to  in  the  scientific  name.  The  flowers  are  a  rich  or  dark  blue,  about 
an  inch  long,  with  an  incurved  spur.  The  fruiting  pods  (follicles) 
are  usually  three  and  erect.  It  is  found  on  dry  gravelly-rocky  foot- 
hills, in  grama-weed,  sagebrush,  juniper  and  ponderosa  pine  types, 
on  cinder  plains,  dry  arroyos,  limestone  rocks,  decomposed  granite, 
and  other  sites  of  rather  limited  moisture. 

Barestem  larkspur  has  been  collected  on  national  forests  between 
elevations  of  about  2,000  to  8,000  feet.  The  flowering  period  is 
mainly  late  March  through  June.  This  plant  is  rather  common 
within  its  range  but,  in  general,  its  palatability  appears  to  be 
negligible  to  low.  It  has  been  reported  as  poisonous  to  cattle  on 
two  national  forests  though  no  actual  losses  have  been  indicated. 
The  species  is  not  known  to  be  in  ornamental  cultivation,  but  it  is 
a  handsome  plant,  the  pale  stem,  light  green  leaves,  black  root, 
and  rich  blue  flowers  being  in  striking  contrast. 

9.  Wright  larkspur  (Delphinium  scopitlorum  A.  Gray)  (fig. 
40)''^  is  a  medium-sized  species  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  Un- 
fortunately it  has  been  confused  in  the  past  with  thickspike  lark- 
spur [D.  stachydenm  (A.  Gray)  Tidestrom,  syn.  D.  scopulorum  var. 
stachydeum  A.  Gray]  a  much  larger  plant  with  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent range  (Oregon-Idaho)  and,  from  this  fact,  the  misleading 
common  name  "tall  mountain  larkspur"  has  been  applied  to  D. 
scopulorum. 

Wright  larkspur  has  a  slender,  ashy-puberulent  stem  16  to  36 
inches  tall,  the  leaves  often  dimorphic,  i.e.,  of  two  types,  the  root 
leaves  broadly  and  palmately  divided  with  few  lobes  or  teeth  and 
the  stem  leaves  finely  dissected ;  the  flowers  are  medium  blue,  in 
usually  short  and  few-flowered  racemes.  It  usually  grows  in  grav- 
elly or  rocky  clay  loams,  in  grass-weed,  park,  oakbrush,  ponderosa 
pine  or  alpine  types,  at  elevations  between  about  6,000  and  12,500 
feet.  Its  palatability  on  the  Apache  National  Forest  (Arizona)  has 
been  rated  as  zero  to  poor  or  at  most  fair  for  cattle  and  fairly  good 
to  good  for  sheep.  This  species  has  been  reported  as  poisonous  to 
cattle  and  to  sometimes  cause  losses  if  eaten  in  quantity. 

Tall  Larkspurs 
(Average  height:  3  feet  or  more) 

10.  Barbey  larkspur  IDelphinium  barheyi  Huth,  syns.  D.  af- 
tenuatum  M.  E.  Jones,  D.  cockerellii  A.  Nels.,  D.  scopulorum  var. 
subalpinum  A.  Gray,  D.  suhalpinum  (A.  Gray)  A.  Nels.]  (fig.  41) -^-^ 

■''^The  species  was  discovered  by  Charles  Wright  (1811-85) ,  the  distinguished 
American  plant  explorer  (especially  of  the  Southwest,  so  far  as  the  United 
States  is  concerned),  on  whose  collections  Asa  Gray  based  his  book  Plantae 
Wrightianae  and  about  whom  is  a  chapter  in  Geiser's  Naturalists  of  the 
Frontier. 

3'^Barbey  larkspur  was  named  by  the  German  botanist  Ernst  Huth  (1845- 
97) ,  monographer  of  the  genera  Caltha,  Delphinium,  and  Paeonia,  in  honor  of 
the  Swiss  botanist  William  Barbey  (1842-1914).  Barbey  was  responsible  for 
letting  Huth  see  Penard's  Colorado  type  specimen  on  which  Delphinium  barheyi 
was  based. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN   RANGE   FORBS 


183 


F-200328 

Figure  40. — Wright  larkspur   {Delphinium  scopulonnn  A.  Gray). 


is  one  of  the  most  important  and  abundant,  and  more  widely  dis- 
tributed, tall  larkspurs.  It  is  typically  a  plant  of  the  higher 
mountains,  ranging  mostly  from  about  8,000  feet  up  to  or  above 
timberline  at  about  11,500  feet,  but  occasionally  as  low  as  6,000 


184  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  41. — Barbey  larkspur 
[Delphinium  barbeyi  Huth, 
syns.  D.  attennatum  M.  E. 
Jones,  D.  cockerellii  A. 
Nels.,  D.  scopulorum  var. 
subalpinuvi  A.  Gray,  D. 
subalpimnn  (A.  Gray)  A. 
Nels.].  Dissected  flower  at 
upper  right;  head  of  folli- 
cles at  center  right. 


feet  toward  the  northwestern  limits  of  its  range.  The  species  ap- 
pears to  be  chiefly  confined  to  three  States,  Wyoming,  Colorado, 
and  Utah,  but  it  occurs  also  in  neighboring  southern  Idaho  and 
northern  New  Mexico.  Large  patches  of  this  tall  larkspur  may  be 
found  growing  abundantly  along  streams,  in  canyons  and  on  moist, 
well-drained  soils,  chiefly  in  aspen-weed-grass,  subalpine  fir  and 
spruce-fir  types. 

Barbey  larkspur  has  a  stout  woody  rootstock;  stout,  hollow, 
straw-colored  stems,  more  or  less  glandular-hairy  at  least  above, 
up  to  8  feet  tall,  occasionally  as  low  as  20  inches ;  leaves  broader 
than  long,  palmately  divided  into  3  broad  primary  segments ;  dense 
and  short  racemes  of  showy,  scented  flowers,  the  sepals  rich  pur- 
plish with  spur  nearly  i/o  inch  long  and  hooked  at  the  tip,  the  upper 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  185 

petals  edged  with  white  or  yellowish  white,  the  fruits  (follicles) 
bluish-purple-veined,  with  smoky-brown  seeds.  The  flowering  pe- 
riod is  mainly  July  and  August. 

It  is  easy  to  distinguish  Barbey  larkspur  after  it  blossoms,  be- 
cause no  other  plant  in  its  habitat  has  similar  flowers.  However, 
these  plants  in  the  early  stages  of  leaf  and  stem  growth  are  often 
confused  with  sticky  geranium  (Geranium  viscosissimum  Fisch.  & 
Mey.),  a  harmless,  widely  distributed  and  common  range  plant, 
and  also  with  monkshood,  particularly  Columbia  monkshood  (Aco- 
nitum  columhianum  Nutt.). 

The  leaves  of  sticky  geranium  are  mostly  basal  and  long  stalked 
— those  that  do  occur  on  the  stem  being  paired — while  the  stems 
of  Barbey  larkspur  are  very  leafy,  are  not  paired,  and  are  shorter 
stalked.  The  leaves  of  monkshood  are  are  similar  in  shape,  size, 
and  arrangement  to  those  af  Barbey  larkspur,  but  are  somewhat 
shorter  stalked ;  the  stems  of  monkshood  are  pithy  as  a  rule,  while 
those  of  larkspur  are  usually  hollow ;  the  roots  of  monkshood  are 
tuberous  and  often  clustered  near  the  soil  surface,  while  those  of 
Barbey  larkspur  are  enlarged,  woody,  and  deep ;  the  well-developed 
hood  of  the  monkshood  flower  and  the  marked  spur  of  the  larkspur 
are  very  distinctive. 

Probably  the  most  serious  cattle  losses  from  tall  larkspur  poison- 
ing throughout  its  known  western  range  is  caused  by  Barbey  lark- 
spur, and  the  species  has  been  the  basis  of  much  experimental  work. 
The  stored  food  in  the  large  and  deep  woody  taproot  of  this  and 
other  tall  larkspurs  facilitates  the  rapid  growth  of  leafy  stems 
early  in  the  spring  before  many  edible  but  harmless  plants  have 
made  an  appreciable  start.  Growth  of  as  much  as  1  to  2  feet  in 
May  has  been  reported,  but  the  rapidity  of  development  varies 
greatly  according  to  the  altitude  and  moisture  and  temperature 
conditions. 

The  large  leaves  are  more  poisonous  than  the  stems  and  are  most 
toxic  when  the  plants  are  starting  spring  growth.  Their  poisonous 
properties  tend  to  decrease  as  the  plant  matures  in  July  and  Au- 
gust. In  fact,  cattle  often  graze  without  harmful  effect  the  palat- 
able green  leaves  that  persist  after  the  plant  has  seeded  (135). 
The  leaves  remain  palatable  until  killed  by  frost.  Although  the 
roots  also  contain  the  toxic  principles,  their  woodiness  and  deep 
underground  habit  of  grovd;h  render  them  almost  inaccessible  to 
cattle. 

The  seeds  of  Barbey  larkspur  are  very  poisonous  and  have  oc- 
casionally caused  some  losses.  Perhaps  this  situation  may  be 
responsible  for  a  report  from  a  Utah  national  forest  that  the  plant 
is  "very  dangerous  after  frost,"  and  that  it  "kills  sheep  after  frost 
has  hit  it."  Although  this  species,  if  eaten  in  sufficiently  large 
quantities  and  within  a  comparatively  short  time,  may  cause  sheep 
poisoning,  range  fatalities  seldom,  if  ever,  occur,  except  possibly 
under  badly  overgrazed  or  other  very  abnormal  conditions.  Horses 
may  be  poisoned  experimentally  by  this  species  but,  under  range 
conditions,  this  kind  of  livestock  apparently  never  eats  enough  of 


186  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

this  larkspur  to  be  injured.  In  most  instances  infested  ranges  may- 
be used  with  safety  for  pasturage  of  sheep  and  horses. 

11.  Sierra  larkspur  [Delphinium  glaucum  S.  Wats.,  syn.  D. 
scopuloruni  var.  glaucum  (S.  Wats.)  A.  Gray]  (fig.  42)  derives  its 
common  name  from  the  fact  that  it  is  abundant  and  conspicuous  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  and  was  discovered  there.  It  is  now 
known  to  range  from  Washington  to  California  and  neighboring 
Nevada.  The  huge  larkspur  of  Alaska  and  Yukon  and  which  some- 
times reaches  a  height  of  over  9  feet,  called  DelpJiinmm  glaucum 
by  Hulten  (102)  and  others,  is  considered  by  Ewan  (65)  to  be  a 
different  species,  D.  brownii  Rydb. 


Figure  42. — Sierra  larkspur 
[Deljihinium  glaucum  S. 
Wats.,  syn.  D.  scopuloruni 
var.  glaucum  (S.  Wats.)  A. 
Gray].  Dissected  flower  at 
upper  right,  with  ^oup  of 
follicles  below. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  187 

Sierra  larkspur  is  a  large,  leafy,  showy  plant,  commonly  from 
3  to  7  feet  in  height,  with  sometimes  as  many  as  20  stems  from  the 
broad  woody  crown.  The  stems  are  smooth  and  hairless  except 
sometimes  in  the  inflorescence,  and  the  herbage  is  more  or  less 
bluish  (glaucous) — whence  the  scientific  name.  The  ultimate  leaf 
divisions  are  jagged  and  sharp,  the  large  lower  leaves  as  much  as 
6  inches  across  and  5  to  7  lobed. 

The  flowers  are  a  deep  blue  with  the  spurs  straight  or  nearly  so. 
The  hairless,  straw-colored  seed  pods  ( follicles)  are  straw-colored, 
smooth  and  shining,  erect,  up  to  %  of  an  inch  long,  with  broadly 
winged  and  shiny  seeds.  It  is  typically  a  plant  of  high  elevations, 
between  about  6,000  and  9,000  feet  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  4,000 
to  6,500  feet  in  Washington  and  Oregon.  It  is  characteristic  of 
wet  meadows  and  streambanks  but  occurs  on  slopes  where  there  is 
sufficient  moisture  and  or  shade. 

Sierra  larkspur  is  poisonous  to  cattle  and  horses,  but  apparently 
is  not  injurious  to  sheep,  for  which  its  palatability  is  fair  to  fairly 
good  or  good.  Although  all  parts  of  the  young  plants,  except  pos- 
sibly the  flowers,  are  poisonous,  these  toxic  properties  tend  to 
disappear  subsequent  to  the  blooming  stage  and  maturity.  Un- 
fortunately, cattle  often  relish  Sierra  larkspur  in  the  early  spring, 
A\  hen  the  young  and  succulent  plants  are  particular  toxic  and  other 
forage  is  scarce.  Accordingly,  the  practical  method  of  preventing 
losses  is  to  prohibit  this  kind  of  livestock  from  grazing  infested 
areas  until  late  summer,  when  this  larkspur  is  no  longer  harmful. 

The  early  symptoms  of  poisoning  are  similar  to  those  produced 
by  deathcamas — the  animal's  muscles  stiffen  and  the  gait  becomes 
irregular;  later,  the  front  legs  give  away,  and  the  animal  falls, 
usually  with  muscles  quivering.  The  animal  kicks  violently  before 
death  ensues.  Poisoned  animals  become  constipated,  but  usually 
recover  if  this  condition  is  relieved.  Bloating  occurs  in  some  cases. 
When  the  poisoning  is  sufficiently  severe  to  produce  fatal  results, 
death  ordinarily  follows  in  a  very  short  time  (135).  In  the  treat- 
ment of  larkspur  poisoning,  the  animal's  head  is  kept  higher  than 
its  body  and  all  unnecessary  exercise  prohibited.  A  formula  for 
an  injection  that  is  recommended  for  use  in  treating  affected 
animals  is  given  on  page  173. 

12.  Duncecap  larkspur  [Delphinium  occidentale  S.  Wats.,  syns. 
D.  abietorum  Tidestrom,  D.  multifiorum  Rydb.,  D.  reticulatum  (A. 
Nels).  Rydb.],  including  its  2  subspecies,  is  found  in  the  higher 
mountains  (about  5,000  to  11,000  feet)  in  all  of  the  11  Far  Western 
States  except  California  and  Arizona.  The  species  inhabits  a  va- 
riety of  soils,  dry  shallow  gravels  and  sandy  clays  but  does  best  in 
rich  black  loams,  along  streams,  about  springs,  in  moist  meadows 
and  the  like,  in  both  open  and  shaded  sites ;  it  is  common  in  aspen 
patches.  The  flowering  period  is  mainly  July  and  August. 

Duncecap  larkspur  is  commonly  3  to  6  feet  high  from  a  deep  ver- 
tical woody  root;  the  stems  are  mostly  straw  colored  below  and 
often  darker  bluish  above;  the  strongly  ascending,  often  long- 
stalked  leaves  are  palmately  divided,  somewhat  as  a  currant  leaf, 
into  3  to  5  main  divisions.    The  relatively  small  flowers  are  in 


188  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

dense  terminal  racemes,  which  are  rather  spikelike  at  first  but 
later  become  more  open  and  branching,  the  stem  (rachis)  often 
glandular.  The  narrowness  of  the  flowers  and  pointed  spurs  re- 
semble a  duncecap — whence  the  common  name. 

The  subspecies  cucullatum  (A.  Nels.)  Ewan  (syn.  Delphinium 
cucullatum  A.  Nels.)  has  a  somewhat  more  northern  range,  is  never 
densely  hairy ;  has  a  more  simple  raceme,  and  the  sepals  are  white 
in  front,  contrasting  with  the  blue  spurs  and  the  2  upper  pale  blue 
sepals,  the  2  lower  sepals  also  being  white.  The  smaller,  more  hairy, 
blue-sepaled  subspecies  quercicola  Ewan  (syn.  D.  quercetorum 
Greene,  not  Boiss.  &  Hausskn.)  extends  the  range  of  the  species 
into  New  Mexico,  from  which  State  the  typical  form  appears  to  be 
absent. 

The  palatability  of  duncecap  larkspur  to  sheep  is,  in  general, 
good,  the  leaves  and  flowers  being  picked  off ;  for  cattle  the  palat- 
ability is  fair  to  fairly  good.  Heavy  cattle  losses  from  this  species 
have  been  reported  from  the  White  River  (Colorado)  and  Hum- 
boldt (Nevada)  National  Forests.  The  subspecies  cucullatum  was 
the  tall  larkspur  used  by  Marsh  and  his  associates  in  feeding  ex- 
periments at  the  Greycliff  Station,  Montana,  and  which  proved  to 
be  the  most  poisonous  of  the  larkspurs  experimented  with  there 
(129,  134).  However,  it  was  necessary  for  a  cow  to  eat  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  the  plant  to  show  any  ill  effects.  The  toxic  dose 
varied  from  nearly  23  to  49  pounds.  After  frost  the  plant  appar- 
ently could  be  eaten  with  impunity  by  either  cattle  or  horses  and 
there  was  no  evidence  that  sheep  were  affected  by  eating  it.  While 
experiments  have  not  definitely  shown  that  all  larkspurs  are  toxic 
to  this  kind  of  livestock,  the  wisest  range  management  must  as- 
sume, preliminary  to  fuller  knowledge,  that  larkspurs,  when 
abundant,  are  dangerous  on  cattle  range. 

13.  In  the  manuals  and  other  literature,  there  are  numerous 
references  to  giant  larkspur  (Delphinium  rohiistiim  Rydb.)  in- 
dicating that  it  occurs  in  Montana,  Wyoming,  and  New  Mexico, 
but  according  to  Ewan  (65)  this  species  is  confined  to  Colorado, 
is  "little  known,"  and  "not  common."  The  plant  has  a  heavy  woody 
root ;  stout  hollow  fine-hairy  stems  typically  5  to  8  feet  tall  but  in 
starved  specimens  sometimes  only  18  inches  high ;  finely  dissected 
leaves,  and  showy,  rich  blue  flowers.  Ewan  thinks  it  is  a  particu- 
larly promising  species  for  ornamental  cultivation,  because  of  its 
handsome  appearance  and  the  particularly  protracted  blossoming 
period.  It  has  been  collected  on  Colorado  national  forests  between 
9,200  and  10,300  feet  in  meadows  and  grassland  and  is  considered 
poisonous  to  cattle.  It  has  been  observed  chiefly  on  borders  of  aspen 
and  coniferous  stands. 

Marsh,  Clawson,  and  Marsh  (134,  p.  50)  report  on  a  feeding 
test  conducted  wth  giant  larkspur  on  a  ranch  at  Parlins,  Colo., 
where  a  cow  fed  with  the  species  was  "down"  for  1  hour  and  7 
minutes  the  flrst  day  and  for  40  minutes  the  second  day.  Because 
40  pounds  of  this  larkspur  was  used  per  1,000  pounds  of  animal, 
producing  symptoms  of  poisoning  late  in  the  season  (August 
22-23),  the  authors  conclude  that  it  is  quite  possible  that  this 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  189 

species  may  be  one  of  the  most  toxic  of  all  the  tall  western  lark- 
spurs. The  closely  related  Geyer  larkspur  or  plains  larkspur  (Del- 
phinium geyeri  Greene)  is  said  by  Beath  (15)  in  Wyoming  to  be 
"responsible  for  more  losses  among  cattle  than  *  *  *  all  the  other 
poisonous  plants  of  the  State  combined." 

14.  Thickspike  larkspur  [^Delphinium  stachydeum  (A.  Gray) 
Tidestrom,  syn.  D.  scopulorum  var.  stachydeum  A.  Gray]  is,  ac- 
cording to  Ewan  (65),  confined  to  Idaho  and  Oregon.  It  occurs  in 
a  great  variety  of  soils  and  sites  :  aspen-weed,  lodgepole  pine  burns, 
parks  and  bottom  lands  of  the  ponderosa  pine  belt,  canyons  and 
slopes,  edges  of  lavabeds,  black  gravelly  loams,  etc.  It  has  been 
collected  on  Oregon  national  forests  between  elevations  of  5,000 
and  6,500  feet,  and  on  Idaho  national  forests  between  5,000  and 
8,500  feet. 

The  plant  has  a  deep  woody  vertical  root;  stout  stems  up  to 
nearly  7  feet  tall,  rarely  only  20  inches  high ;  unusually  thick  and 
dense,  mulleinlike  and  spikelike  racemes  up  to  II/2  inches  broad 
and  3  to  6  inches  long,  of  blue  flowers  with  long  and  slender  spurs. 
The  fruiting  pods  (follicles)  are  about  1/4  inch  long,  a  little  spread- 
ing at  the  tips,  with  numerous,  smoky-brown  and  relatively  very 
large,  winged  seeds.  The  flowering  period  is  mainly  late  June 
through  August.  It  is  poor  to  fair  feed  for  cattle,  fair  to  good  for 
sheep,  and  is  considered  the  worst  cattle-poisoning  larkspur  on  the 
Targhee  National  Forest  (Idaho).  The  specific  name  stachydeum 
[derived  from  Greek  ara;^!'?  (spike)'\  refers  to  the  thick,  spikelike 
inflorescence. 

Isopyrum  (Isopyrum) 

There  are  three  western  range  species  of  this  genus :  Halls  iso- 
pyrum (Isopyrum  hallii  A.  Gray),  in  the  Coast,  and  Cascade 
Ranges  and  the  Willamette  River  valley  of  western  Oregon — the 
plant  named  for  Elihu  Hall  (1822-82),  well  known  as  a  western 
botanical  explorer ;  California  isopyrum  (I.  occidentale  Hook.  & 
Arn.)  of  California,  and  Siskiyou  isopyrum  (I.  stipitatum  A.  Gray) 
in  the  area  from  Douglas  County,  Oregon,  to  Mendocino  County, 
California. 

These  isopyrums  are  small  to  medium-sized,  smooth  and  rather 
slender  herbs  perennial  from  fleshy  and  fibrous  roots.  They  have 
compound  foliage  somewhat  suggestive  of  that  of  meadowrue 
(Thalictrum)  and  mostly  white  flowers  solitary  or  in  clusters 
(panicles  or  cymes);  petals  are  often  absent;  the  5  or  6  petallike 
sepals  are  early-deciduous;  the  stamens  are  numerous;  the  fruit 
a  head  of  follicles.  Species  of  Isopyrum,  often  called  "rue-ane- 
mone" a  name  better  restricted  to  Anemonella,  are  probably  neg- 
ligible as  forage  plants  but  more  data  on  this  subject  are  needed. 
Linnaeus  Latinized  and  transferred  to  this  genus  a  somewhat 
uncertain  plant  name  of  the  Greek  physician  and  herbalist  Dio- 
scorides  Pedanius,  Lao-n-vpov. 


190  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Buttercup  (Rammctdus,  syns.  Batrachium,  Beckwithia, 
Coptidium,  Cyrtorhynca,  Halerpestes) 

Ranunculus,'^''  called  buttercup  in  this  country,  crowfoot  in  Eng- 
land, bouton  d'or  (also  bassinet,  grenouillet,  and  renoncule)  in 
France,  and  butterblume  in  Germany,  is  an  immense  genus  of  prac- 
tically cosmopolitan  distribution — in  all  continents,  in  the  arctic, 
tropics,  and  temperate  regions.  Nearly  1,800  species  have  been 
described  and,  omitting  the  homonyms,  obvious  synonyms  and 
names  more  deserving  of  subspecific  or  lower  rank,  the  number  of 
valid  species  must  still  be  very  large. 

About  72  species  of  Ranuncidus  occur  as  western  range  plants 
and  are  deserving  of  discussion  here  more  because  of  abundance 
and  wide  distribution  than  because  of  actual  forage  value.  The 
North  American  species  have  been  monographed  by  Benson  (18, 
19,  20),  and  his  treatment  is  largely  followed  in  the  more  recent 
manuals.  Buttercups  are  annual  or  perennial  herbs  of  greatly 
varied  habitat,  but  the  majority  of  species  are  characteristic  of 
moist-wet  sites. 

The  leaves  are  basal  and /or  alternate  on  the  stems,  sometimes 
entire  but  usually  lobed  or  parted.  The  flowers  are,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  yellow,  solitary  or  occasionally  clustered ;  the  sepals 
and  petals  without  spurs,  largely  5,  rarely  3  or  1,  and  the  petals, 
v/hich  ordinarily  have  a  nectary  on  their  claw,  may  be  as  many  as 
15  or  so;  the  stamens  are  usually  numerous.  The  fruits  (dry, 
mostly  beaked  achenes)  are  assembled  in  dense  globular,  ellipsoid 
or  short-cylindrical  heads  on  a  short  receptacle  and  are  very  im- 
portant means  of  identification  in  this  botanically  difl^cult  genus. 

At  least  seven  species  of  this  genus  are  in  ornamental  cultivation, 
the  most  spectacular  of  which  is  Persian  buttercup  (Ranunculus 
asiaticus  L.),  from  which  have  been  developed  plants  with  very 
"double"  flowers  up  to  2  inches  across  and  of  nearly  every  shade 
except  the  bluish  ones. 

Although  widespread,  the  buttercups  are  seldom  important  for- 
age plants  for  domestic  livestock.  Practically  all  species  are  low  in 
palatability,  and  the  majority  of  them  complete  growth  and  dis- 
appear from  the  range  before  midsummer.  However,  most  species 
are  of  considerable  value  as  deer  and  elk  forage,  these  animals 
commonly  using  the  range  early  when  buttercups  are  most  palat- 
able. All  species  have  a  more  or  less  acrid  juice. 

A  few  of  the  more  notably  acrid  species,  such  as  tall  buttercup 
or  "meadow  buttercup"  (Ranunculus  acris  L.),^'  and  especially 
blister  buttercup,  known  also  as  "rogue  buttercup"  and  "cursed 

■^''Ranunculus,  the  Latin  word  for  little  frog,  was  facetiously  employed  by 
Cicero  to  denote  the  inhabitants  of  the  marshes  near  Rome  and  was  adopted  by 
the  Roman  naturalist  Pliny  for  these  plants.  The  common  name  buttercup 
comes  from  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  shiny  yellow  flowers  to  a  cup  of 
butter.  The  local  name  crowfoot  alludes  to  the  similarity  in  leaf  shape  of  some 
species  to  the  foot  of  a  crow. 

•'•This  name  has  often  been  "corrected"  to  the  classical  form  R.  acer, 
Rammculus  being  a  masculine  noun  {52).  However,  the  original  spelling  is 
admissible  under  later  Latin  usage. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  191 

crowfoot"  (R.  sceleratus  L.),  are  definitely  known  to  be  poisonous 
(123,  H7).  "Creeping  spearwort"  [R.  flammula  var.  filiformis 
(Michx.)  Hook.,  syn.  var.  reptans  (L.)  E.  Mey.]  may  also  be  pois- 
onous, as  the  species  "lesser  spearwort"  (R,  flammula  L.)^  which 
occurs  in  England,  has  been  shown  to  be  fatal  to  cattle  and  horses 
(123). 

Long-  reports  that,  in  England,  the  poisonous  properties  of  but- 
tercups vary  with  the  species,  the  part  of  the  plant,  and  the  season 
of  the  year.  In  the  early  spring,  he  states,  but  little  of  the  poison- 
ous principle  is  present  and  some  species  are  not  at  all  poisonous ; 
the  flowers  are  the  most  poisonous  part,  then  the  leaves,  and  the 
stem.  The  toxic  principle  is  volatile  and  is  dissipated  in  drying,  so 
that  buttercups  are  harmless  in  hay.  The  action  is  chiefly  that  of 
an  irritant,  raising  blisters  on  the  skin;  when  eaten  by  livestock 
these  species  cause  inflammation  of  the  mouth  and  throat  and  even 
gastritis,  which  may  prove  fatal. 

Martin,  Zim,  and  Nelson  (136)  indicate  that  the  achemes  of 
buttercups  are  eaten  by  rather  numerous  birds  and  rodents,  as  well 
as  by  foxes  in  eastern  Texas,  but  "the  amounts  eaten  are  generally 
small."  The  14  species  of  buttercup  annotated  here  represent,  it 
is  believed,  a  fair  section  of  the  more  important  western  range 
members  of  this  genus. 

1.  Adonis  buttercup  (Ranunculus  adoneus  A.  Gray)  ranges  from 
central  and  southeastern  Idaho  to  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  Utah. 
In  bloom  it  is  a  rather  showy  little  plant.  It  is  a  species  of  the 
high  mountains,  collected  as  low  as  6,400  feet  on  the  Challis 
National  Forest  (Idaho)  and  as  high  as  11,000  feet  on  the  White 
River  National  Forest  (Colorado),  often  above  timberline  or  at  the 
edge  of  snowbanks,  chiefly  in  moist-wet  meadows  but  sometimes 
in  scablands  or  other  rocky  areas.  It  is  a  smooth  plant,  2  to  8 
inches  high,  with  fleshy-fibrous  roots;  fanlike  (flabelliform)  leaves 
2's  or  3's  divided  into  3's,  the  ultimate  leaf  segments  narrowly 
linear;  with  rather  large  flowers,  and  ovoid,  turgid,  un winged 
fruits  (achenes).  The  flowering  period  ranges  from  June  to  Au- 
gust, depending  chiefly  on  location.  The  plant  is  not  known  to  be 
grazed  but  more  data  on  palatability  are  desired.  The  name 
adoneus  refers  to  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  flowers  to  those 
of  the  genus  Adonis,  which,  in  turn,  is  named  for  the  handsome 
mythological  youth  Adonis. 

2.  Rather  closely  related  to  Adonis  buttercup  is  Eschscholtz 
buttercup  (Ranunculus  eschscholtzii  Schlecht. )  ,2^  primarily  an 
arctic  or  alpine  species  occurring  from  Alaska  to  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  of  California  (where  rather  rare),  thence  to  Nevada, 
Utah,  Colorado,  western  Montana,  and  Alberta.    In  the  variety 

28The  species  commemorates  Dr.  Johann  Friedrich  Eschscholtz  (1793-1831), 
surgeon,  naturalist  and  explorer,  who,  with  the  famous  poet-naturalist  Adel- 
bert  von  Chamisso,  accompanied  Capt.  Otto  von  Kotzebue  in  the  ship  Rurik  on 
Count  Romanzoff's  Russian  polar  expedition  (1815-18).  The  famous  ice  cliffs 
of  Eschscholtz  Bay  on  Kotzebue  Sound,  northwest  Alaska,  are  named  for 
Eschscholtz  as  is  also  the  well-known  California-poppy  genus.  Actually,  the 
type  specimen  of  Eschscholtz  buttercup  was  collected  by  Chamisso  on  the 
expedition  mentioned. 


192  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

eximius  (Greene)  L.  Benson  (syns.  R.  eximius  Greene,  R.  saxicola 
Rydb.)  it  reaches  the  San  Francisco  Peaks  of  northern  Arizona.  It 
is  a  relatively  small  and  delicate  plant,  2  to  12  inches  high,  with  a 
thickened  rootcrown  from  which  a  cluster  of  fibrous  roots  depend. 
It  is  rather  variable  and  includes  four  named  varieties. 

The  leaves  of  this  species  are  dissected  and  somewhat  larkspur- 
like. The  basal  leaves  are  somewhat  kidney  shaped  in  general  out- 
line with  rounded  or  squared  (truncate)  bases,  3  to  5  parted  and 
again  cleft,  the  stem  leaves  reduced  and  sometimes  3  lobed.  The 
flowers  are  yellow,  the  petals  more  than  half  as  long  as  the  green- 
ish-yellow sepals ;  the  nectary  scale  at  the  base  of  each  petal  is  at- 
tached laterally  to  the  petal  forming  a  kind  of  pocket.  The  fruits 
are  oblongish  with  a  straight  beak  about  1mm.  ('{,.-,  inch)  long. 

The  plant  usually  occurs  at  or  above  timberline,  in  wet  meadows, 
wet  gravels,  and  slides,  and  sometimes  is  quite  abundant.  Ordi- 
narily the  palatability  to  domestic  livestock  is  negligible  or  at  most 
poor.  In  some  places,  as  on  the  Flathead  National  Forest  (Mon- 
tana), it  has  been  noted  that  deer  and  elk  are  very  fond  of  it.  The 
larger  flowered  forms  of  the  species  are  ornamental  and  perhaps 
worthy  of  cultivation  from  that  standpoint. 

3.  Plantainleaf  buttercup  (Ranunculus  alismaefolius  Geyer) 
(fig.  43)  is  one  of  the  more  common  and  widely  distributed  butter- 
cups in  the  mountains  of  the  Western  States.  It  typically  occurs 
from  Vancouver  Island  and  British  Columbia  to  Washington, 
Idaho,  and  northern  California.  The  four  varieties  recognized  by 
Benson  (20)  further  extend  its  range,  variety  harttvegii  (Greene) 
Jepson  (syn.  R.  hartwegii  Greene)  reaching  Idaho,  Montana,  and 
Wyoming,  and  variety  monlanus  S.  Wats.  (syns.  R.  calthaeflorus 
Greene,  R.  ungidculatus  Greene),  with  10  petals,  occurring  in 
Nevada,  Wyoming,  and  Colorado. 

Northern  Arizona  and  southern  Utah  material  identified  as 
Ranunculus  alismaefolius  is  probably  the  related  R.  collomae  L. 
Benson.  The  purport  of  the  common  and  specific  names  is  practi- 
cally similar:  alismaefolius  means  like  the  foliage  of  the  aquatic 
genus  Alisma,  whose  species  have  plantainlike  leaves  and  are 
known  as  waterplantains. 

Plantainleaf  buttercup,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  entire-leaved 
buttercups,  has  stems  varying  from  6  to  30  inches  in  height,  aver- 
aging much  taller  than  the  other  entire-leaved  western  species 
which  are  usually  less  han  8  inches  high.  It  is  a  smooth  plant,  with 
a  dense  cluster  of  fibrous  roots,  with  thickish,  taper-tipped  leaves 
of  a  lanceolate  type  up  to  6'  inches  long,  mostly  entire  but  some- 
times finely  toothed ;  the  typically  5  petals  are  i/i  to  %  of  an  inch 
long,  longer  than  the  sepals;  the  smooth  fruits  (achenes)  are 
slender  beaked  about  30  to  50  in  a  subglobose  head  a  little  wider 
than  long. 

The  bright  and  shiny  yellow  flowers  appear  in  May  and  June. 
When  the  plants  are  numerous  and  in  blossom,  their  attractive 
yellow  provides  a  pleasing  landscape  effect.  However,  the  petals 
are  soon  lost,  the  achenes  mature,  and  the  succulent  stems  and 
leaves  become  dry,  brown,  and  brittle.    The  plants  soon  start  to 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


193 


F-291191 

Figure  43. — Plantainleaf  buttercup  (Ra- 
nunculus alismaefolius  Geyer) .  At 
right  (upper)  petal,  showing  nectary 
at  the  base;  (lower)  individual  achene, 
or  fruit. 

disintegrate  and  by  late  summer  the  aerial  parts  have  practically 
vanished  from  the  range. 

Plantainleaf  buttercup  is  one  of  the  first  plants  to  appear  in 
the  spring,  normally  growing  very  rapidly  and  maturing  by  mid- 
summer. It  inhabits  moist  to  wet  sites,  and  even  exists  in  shallow 
water,  although  the  soil  may  become  very  dry  after  the  plants 
complete  growth.  It  is  most  common  in  meadows,  flats,  and  parks, 


194  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  on  open  streambanks,  but  it  also  grows  on  open  slopes.  The 
largest  plants  and  the  most  dense  stands  are  found  in  the  deep, 
black  loams  of  flats  and  meadows;  when  growing  on  less  fertile 
and  on  stony  soils,  the  individual  plants  are  smaller  and  generally 
scattered.  Mostly  it  grows  in  full  sunlight,  only  a  few  scattered 
plants  occurring  in  the  shade  of  trees,  such  as  lodgepole  pine  and 
aspen,  which  encircle  the  open  sites  where  the  species  grows.  It 
is  a  plant  of  the  mountains,  being  practically  limited  to  elevations 
from  the  ponderosa  pine  belt  to  timberline.  In  the  wetter  sites 
it  is  likely  to  occur  in  pure  stand ;  in  the  better  drained  areas  it  is 
frequently  associated  with  dandelions,  clovers,  and  bluegrasses. 

Although  plantainleaf  buttercup  varies  as  forage  according  to 
locality,  it  is  nowhere  highly  valued.  Use  of  this  species  by  live- 
stock is  limited  due  to  its  somewhat  acrid  taste,  which  doubtless 
accounts  for  its  low  palatability,  and  to  its  extremely  early  growth, 
since  the  plants  often  mature  and  practically  disappear  from  the 
range  before  the  major  forage  plants  are  fully  developed.  It  is 
perhaps  most  valuable  in  Wyoming  and  Colorado,  where  it  is 
sometimes  considered  fair  for  cattle  and  good  for  sheep.  In  Utah, 
the  species  is  fair  for  cattle  and  sheep,  but  in  the  Northwest  and 
in  California  it  rates  as  poor  for  cattle  and  fair  for  sheep.  How- 
ever, deer,  and  possibly  elk  also,  crop  plantainleaf  buttercup  ex- 
tensively, probably  because  this  species  is  one  of  the  earliest 
herbaceous  plants  available  on  the  range. 

Throughout  its  natural  range,  plantainleaf  buttercup  often  in- 
creases appreciably  where  overgrazing  and  erosion  have  depleted 
the  original  plant  cover  of  good  forage  species,  such  as  bluegrasses 
and  the  better  sedges.  It  is  more  successfully  adapted  to  invade 
openings  in  the  plant  cover  than  are  most  plants,  as  it  makes  its 
growth  and  matures  very,  early  and  is  usually  sparingly  grazed 
because  of  low  palatability.  Even  though  erosion  may  have  been 
prevented,  the  replacement  of  the  normal  cover  by  plantainleaf 
buttercup  indicates  that  some  remedial  action,  such  as  reduction 
of  the  numbers  of  livestock,  is  necessary.  Successful  experiments 
in  improving  mountain  meadows  have  been  conducted  in  Cali- 
fornia in  eradication  of  this  species  with  2,  4-D  preliminary  to  re- 
seeding  (If5,.!f6). 

In  Washington,  Oregon,  California,  Nevada,  and  perhaps  Idaho 
is  the  smaller  Ranunculus  alismaefolius  var.  alismellus  A.  Gray 
[syn.  R.  alismellus  (A.  Gray)  Greene].  It  has  finer  and  fewer 
roots,  broader  basal  leaves  (ovate-lanceolate  or  even  ovate,  rather 
than  lanceolate),  and  fewer  and  smaller  fruits.  It  occurs  in  high 
coniferous  forests  up  to  about  11,000  feet  and,  except  for  deer  and 
elk,  is  generally  regarded  as  worthless  for  forage. 

4.  Anderson  buttercup  [^Ranunculus  andersonii  A.  Gray,  syn. 
Beckwithia  andersonii  (A.  Gray)  Jepson]-^"  is  a  handsome  little 
plant  which,  strange  to  say,  seems  not  to  have  come  into  orna- 
mental cultivation.  It  ranges  from  southeastern  Oregon  to  south 
central  Idaho  and  south  to  Utah,  Nevada,  and  California.    It  is  a 

■''"The  species  commemorates  Charles  Lewis  Anderson,  M.  D.  (1827-1910),  a 
biographical  sketch  of  whom  appears  in  Madrono  1:  214-216,  1929. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  195 

smooth  plant,  often  with  great  masses  of  fibrous  roots  or  with  a 
short  rootstock  from  which  fibrous  roots  depend,  about  2  to  8  inches 
high. 

The  leaves  almost  wholly  basal  (occasionally  a  small  stem  leaf 
is  present)  ;  these  leaves  are  small,  kidney  shaped  (reniforyn)  in 
general  outline,  with  3  main  divisions,  each  dissected  into  reverse 
lance-shaped  segments  about  i -j  inch  long.  The  usually  naked 
flower  stalks  (scapes)  are  1  flowered,  the  5  sepals  reddish,  the  5 
petals  red,  wedge  shaped,  sometimes  almost  an  inch  long,  the 
nectary  scale  at  the  base  of  each  petal  ridged.  The  fruits  are  some- 
what flattened  and  resemble  sepals,  %  to  over  1/2  inch  long.  The 
flowers,  which  are  sometimes  more  than  2  inches  across  and  showy, 
appear  from  late  March  to  June. 

Anderson  buttercup  occurs  in  foothills  and  mountains  between 
about  4,500  and  8,000  feet,  in  gravels,  clays,  volcanic  ash,  rocky 
sagebrush,  oak,  pinyon- juniper  and  ponderosa  pine  types,  more 
often  in  rather  dry  sites  but  sometimes  in  wet  places.  It  is  com- 
monly one  of  the  first  plants  within  its  range  to  appear  in  the 
spring,  is  seldom  touched  by  cattle  but  sometimes  nibbled  by  sheep ; 
it  frequently  dries  up  and  disappears  by  the  time  stock  enter  the 
range. 

5.  Bongard  buttercup  [Ranunculus  bongardii  Greene,  syns.  R. 
(jreeyiei  Howell,  R.  lyallii  (A.  Gray)  Rydb.,  R.  recurvatus  Bong. 
(1831)  mainly,  not  R.  recurvatus  Poiret  (1804)]  occurs  from 
Alaska  and  neighboring  Siberia  to  California,  Colorado,  western 
Montana,  and  Idaho.  It  is  variable,  as  its  wide  range  and  synonymy 
attest.  Benson  (19)  recognizes  two  named  varieties,  of  which 
variety  tenellus  (Nutt.)  Greene  (syns.  R.  arcnatus  Heller,  R.  doug- 
lasii  Howell,  R.  tenellus  Nutt.),  more  slender  and  often  annual,  is 
the  more  common  and  important.  Typical  R.  bongardii  is  mainly 
coastal  and  the  var.  tenelhis  mainly  interior. 

The  type  of  Ranunculus  bongardii  was  collected  by  Bongard^"  at 
Sitka,  Alaska.  The  typical  form  is  perennial,  erect,  up  to  2  feet 
high,  rough-hairy,  the  hairs  often  reddish  brown.  The  basal 
leaves  are  larger  than  those  on  the  stem,  heart  or  kidney  shaped 
(cordate  reniform)  in  general  outline,  IV2  to  3  inches  broad,  3 
parted,  the  primary  lobes  again  shallow  lobed,  the  lobes  sharp 
tipped.  The  yellow  flowers,  appearing  from  late  April  through 
July,  are  minute,  the  sepals  reflexed,  the  5  petals  about  Vis  to 
less  than  V2  of  an  inch  long,  shorter  than  the  sepals,  the  nectary 
scale  not  forming  a  pocket.  The  fruiting  achenes  are  flattened, 
^^2  of  an  inch  (2  mm.)  long,  the  beak  strongly  hooked  and  longer 
than  the  body  of  the  achene. 

The  plant  has  been  collected  on  national  forests  at  elevations  as 
low  as  200  feet  in  Alaska  and  as  high  as  8,500  feet  in  western  Wy- 
oming. It  inhabits  mainly  shaded  and  moist  sites,  and  is  often 
associated  with  sedges,  waterleaf,  willows,  and  alders.  It  is  too 
acrid  to  be  particularly  palatable,  and  its  value  is  generally  nil 
to  poor  or  low ;  its  occurrence  is  often  spotty  and  it  is  usually  not 


*" August  Heinrich  Gustav  Bongard  (178fi-1839) ,  a  German-Russian  botanist 
who  published  on  the  flora  of  Sitka,  Brazil,  Russia,  and  the  Bonin  Islands. 


196  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

abundant  in  any  one  place.  Horses  reject  it.  Reported  to  be 
"eaten  readily  by  deer  and  elk"  on  the  Olympic  National  Forest 
(Washington). 

6,  Closely  related  to  Bong-ard  buttercup  is  Macoun  buttercup 
[Ranunculus  macounii  Britton,  syns.  R.  hispidus  Hook.  (1829)  not 
Michx.  (1803),  R.  rividaris  Rydb.,  R.  rudis  Greene]  which  ranges 
from  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  west  to  Alaska  and  Siberia 
and  south  to  California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Iowa,  northern  Michigan,  Ontario,  and  Quebec.  It  is 
a  perennial  or  sometimes  apparently  annual  herb,  typically  densely 
beset  with  rough  hairs,  the  stems  8  to  36  inches  high  or  as  long  as 
the  plant,  especially  towards  the  south ;  often  roots  at  the  nodes, 
giving  a  trailing  appearance.  Sometimes  the  stems  are  stout  and 
fistulous  and  sometimes  slender.  The  so-called  variety  oreganus 
(A.  Gray)  Davis  [syns.  R.  hispidus  var.  oreganus  A.  Gray,  R. 
oreganus  (A.  Gray)  Howell],  which  is  smooth  and  hairless,  is 
apparently  deemed  by  Benson  (19)  to  be  not  more  than  a  form. 

The  basal  leaves  of  Macoun  buttercup  are  either  3-divided  or 
pinnately  compound  into  3  to  5  leaflets,  and  these  in  turn  parted 
and  the  parts  lobed,  the  general  outline  of  the  leaf  being  triangular. 
The  5  yellow  obovate  petals  are  less  than  Ys  of  an  inch  (5  to  7 
mm.)  long,  slightly  longer  than  the  sepals.  The  fruits  (achenes) 
are  Vs  of  an  inch  (3  mm.)  long,  smooth,  with  a  short,  straight  or 
slightly  curved  beak,  borne  in  an  egg-shaped  or  somewhat  cylin- 
drical head  on  a  hairy  receptacle  that  enlarges  considerably  in 
fruit. 

The  plant  occurs  in  mucky  places,  along  streams,  meadows  near 
water,  and  the  like.  It  has  been  collected  on  a  gravelly  sea  beach 
on  the  Tongass  National  Forest  (Alaska)  and  at  9,500  feet  under 
aspen  on  the  Uncompahgre  National  Forest  (Colorado).  The 
flowering  period  is  from  late  May  to  early  July  and  the  fruiting 
period  mainly  July  and  August.  The  palatability  in  general  is 
low.  On  the  Teton  National  Forest  and  neighboring  Yellowstone 
National  Park  (Wyoming)  it  appears  to  have  moderate  value  for 
deer  and  elk.  The  plant  commemorates  John  Macoun  (1832-1920), 
well-known  Canadian  botanist  and  ornithologist. 

7.  Tall  buttercup  (Ranunculus  acris  L.),  an  Old  World  species 
widely  naturalized  in  meadows  and  fields  and  along  roadsides  in 
the  eastern  and  middle  States  and  Canada,  has  now  invaded  parts 
of  British  Columbia,  Washington,  and  Oregon.  It  is  entirely  too 
acrid  to  be  at  all  palatable  to  grazing  animals.  Pammel  (151) 
reports  that  its  acrid  juice  is  dissipated  on  drying  and  that  the 
"symptoms  produced  in  animals  are  blistering,  slavering,  choking, 
vomiting,  in  some  cases  followed  by  death  resembling  that  from 
apoplexy." 

Johnson  (107)  states  that  in  "a  herd  of  cows  pastured  for  years 
in  succession  in  an  old  field  thickly  beset  with  this  weed  [tall  but- 
tercup], abortion  was  frequent  and  troublesome.  As  soon,  how- 
ever, as  this  pasture  was  broken  up  and  the  herd  moved  to  another 
part  of  the  farm  in  which  the  plant  did  not  grow,  abortion  dis- 
appeared *  *  *  though  there  is  no  positive  proof  that  the  abortions 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  197 

were  due  to  the  plant  in  question,  the  facts  as  stated  are  interesting 
and  significant.  It  is  at  least  possible  that  ranunculus  exerts  an 
influence  upon  the  reproductive  organs  like  that  which  is  claimed 
by  some  for  Pulsatilla."  In  this  connection,  it  might  be  mentioned 
that  Linnaeus  named  a  peculiarly  acrid,  small-flowered  North 
American  buttercup  R.  abortivus  L.  because  of  its  local  reputation 
as  an  abortifacient. 

8.  California  buttercup  ^Ranunculus  californicus  Benth.,  syns. 
R.  dissectus  Hook.  &  Arn.  (1840)  not  Bieb.  (1819),  R.  latilobus  (A. 
Gray)  Parish]  is  well-named,  because  it  occurs  almost  throughout 
California  into  Lower  California;  the  varieties  cuneatus  Greene 
and  grains  Jepson  extend  the  range  northward  into  Oregon.  It  is 
a  hairy  or  smooth  perennial  (apparently  sometimes  annual)  from 
a  cluster  of  rather  thickened  fibrous  roots,  1  to  2  feet  high,  erect 
or  somewhat  bent  at  the  base.  The  basal  leaves  are  twice  or  more 
as  long  as  broad,  mostly  pinnate  with  3-  to  5-lobed  or  parted 
leaflets. 

The  bright  golden  yellow  flowers  are  noteworthy  for  their  nu- 
m.erous  (mostly  9  to  16,  sometimes  as  many  as  26)  petals  about  V2 
inch  (8  to  15  mm.)  long — much  longer  than  the  reflexed,  pointed 
sepals.  The  receptacle  does  not  elongate  conspicuously  in  fruit ;  the 
fruits  are  strongly  flattened,  with  a  short  curved  beak.  The  flower- 
ing period  is  late  January  to  May.  The  species  is  primarily  one  of 
fields,  meadows  and  open  hillsides,  from  about  sea  level  to  6,000 
feet  or  more.  In  general,  it  is  worthless  as  forage. 

Brewer  and  Watson  (31)  say:  "this  is  by  far  the  most  common 
and  abundant  species  in  the  State,  and  is  particularly  abundant  in 
the  Coast  ranges  where  low  grassy  hills  are  often  yellow  with  the 
shining  flowers  in  early  spring."  Jepson  (105)  speaks  of  this  plant 
as  "the  most  common  species  (of  buttercup),  everywhere  abundant, 
coloring  leagues  upon  leagues  of  grassy  hills  in  the  late  winter  and 
early  spring  with  its  profusion  of  yellow  flowers.  Running  into 
numerous  varieties,  which  are  scarcely  distinguishable  in  any 
satisfactory  way." 

In  another  work  (lOJ^)  Jepson  adds :  "It  is  a  tropophyte,  our  only 
species  which  has  accommodated  itself  to  the  dry  naked  hills,  but 
its  period  of  development  corresponds  to  the  months  of  the  winter 
and  spring  rains  when  the  soil  is  continuously  moist.  It  is,  further- 
more, not  only  our  most  abundant  but  our  most  variable  species. 
In  drier  regions,  i.e.,  towards  the  interior,  it  is  less  common  on  the 
hills  and  favors  low  ground;  likewise,  in  Southern  California,  it  is 
all  but  confined  to  cienagas  and  wet  swales."  Benson,  in  Abrams' 
flora  (2),  mentions  that  this  species,  western  buttercup,  and  hoary 
buttercup  (Ranunculus  canus  Benth.),  a  large,  large-fruited  and 
mostly  hoary  species  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys 
and  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  foothills,  have,  with  their  numerous 
varieties,  "an  abundance  of  connecting  forms." 

9,  Western  buttercup  (Ranunculus  occidentalis  Nutt.)  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly variable  species,  very  closely  related  to  California  butter- 
cup. Benson  (19)  recognizes  10  named  varieties;  he  says  of  the 
"R.  occidentalis  complex"  (R.  calif ornicus-canus-occidentalis),  it 


198  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

"is  perhaps  only  scarcely  less  difficult  to  classify  than  the  races  of 
dogs."  The  typical  form  of  the  species  is  found  from  Alaska  to 
Oregon. 

Ranuncvlus  occidentalis  reaches  farther  south  to  California  in 
the  following  four  varieties:  Blue  Mountains  buttercup  (var.  dis- 
secttis  Henders.,  syns.  R.  ciliosus  Howell,  R.  marmorarms  Jeps.  & 
Tracy)  ;  Eisen  buttercup  [var.  eisenii  (Kell.)  A.  Gray,  syn.  R. 
eisenii  Kellogg] ;  Elk  Mountain  buttercup  [var.  ultramontanits 
Greene,  syns.  R.  alceus  Greene,  R.  idtramontanus  (Greene)  Heller] 
which  also  gets  into  western  Nevada;  and  Rattan  buttercup  [var. 
rattanii  A.  Gray,  syn,  R.  rattanii  (A.  Gray)  Howell].  In  Montana 
buttercup  [var.  montanensis  (Rydb.)  L.  Benson,  syn.  R.  montan- 
ensis  Rydb.],  the  species  extends  eastward  into  Idaho,  western 
Montana,  and  western  Wyoming;  this  variety  has  also  been  re- 
ported from  Albuquerque,  N.  Mex.,  but  Benson  (19)  questions  this. 

Typical  western  buttercup  is  an  erect  or  nearly  erect,  freely 
branching  perennial  herb  8  to  28  inches  high,  with  thickish  leaves 
about  %  to  2  inches  broad,  the  3  lobes  wedgelike  below  which, 
again,  are  often  lobed.  The  fruits  (achenes)  are  smooth  and  Vio 
of  an  inch  long,  with  a  slender  curved  beak.  The  plant  is  often 
abundant  in  meadows,  ravines,  and  woodlands.  It  has  been  col- 
lected at  elevations  on  national  forests  from  as  low  as  sea  level  to 
as  high  as  6,700  feet.  In  general,  its  palatability  is  regarded  as 
slight. 

In  contrasting  Ranunculus  occidentalis  with  R.  canus  and  R. 
calif ornicus,  Benson  (19)  notes  that  typically  it  is  the  smallest 
of  the  3  species;  that  the  petal  number  averages  fewer  (5  or  6) 
and  the  petals  are  usually  broader  (seldom  2  times  or  so  as  long  as 
broad),  the  leaves  are  seldom  compound,  and  the  achenes  are 
smaller.  In  contrast  with  R.  californicus  the  petals  are  fewer 
(mostly  5  or  6  instead  of  9  to  16  or  more)  and  the  blades  are  con- 
siderably shorter  as  compared  with  the  length. 

10.  Sliore  buttercup,  known  also  as  "ivy  buttercup,"  "trailing 
buttercup,"  and  "water  crowfoot,"  {Ranunculus  cymhalaria  Pursh, 
syn.  Halerpestes  cymhalaria  (Pursh)  Greene] ^^  ranges  in  its  typi- 
cal form  from  Labrador  to  Yukon  and  Alaska  and  south  to  Wyom- 
ing, Oklahoma,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and  New 
Jersey.  It  is  a  smooth  trailing  perennial  herb,  with  long  trailing 
stems  or  stolons  which  root  at  the  nodes  and  produce  new  plants, 
and  naked  flower  stalks  (scapes)  %  to  41/2  inches  tall.  The  basal 
leaves  are  heart  shaped. fco^'cZaie^,  less  than  an  inch  (5  to  22  mm.) 
long,  with  shallow  scalloped  lobes.  There  are  five  small  yellow 
petals.  The  fruits  (achenes)  are  in  a  cylindrical  head  up  to  about 
14  inch  long,  the  receptacle  elongating  and  becoming  cylindrical  in 
fruit.  The  plant  inhabits  saline  marshes  near  the  coast,  the  mud  of 
brackish  streams,  and  the  like. 

The  common  form  in  the  western  range  country  is  Ranunculus 
cymhalaria  var.  saximontanus  Fernald,  often  called  "desert  crow- 


•*iThe  specific  name  cymhalaria  refers  to  the  resemblance  of  the  plant  to  the 
cultivated  Kenilworth-ivy  (Cymhalaria  vuiralis  Gaertn.,  Mey.  &  Scherb.,  syn. 
Antirrhinum  cymhalaria  L.). 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  199 

foot,"  which  occurs  around  waterholes,  springs  and  seeps,  edges  of 
lakes,  etc.,  from  the  sagebrush  to  the  ponderosa  pine  type,  from 
Vancouver  Island  and  Alberta  south  to  California,  central  Mexico, 
New  Mexico,  Kansas,  and  South  Dakota.  The  flower  stalks  are 
longer  than  those  of  the  typical  form  (2  to  12  inches  high)  and 
usually  branched,  the  basal  leaves  are  larger  (up  to  nearly  2  inches 
long),  and  the  fruits  more  numerous  (100  to  300  in  a  head).  This 
variety  has  been  collected  on  national  forests  at  elevations  as  low 
as  1,400  feet  and  as  high  as  9,200  feet. 

In  addition,  there  is  a  northern  or  alpine  variety,  Ranuncnhis 
cymhalaria  var.  alpinus  Hook.,  a  small  plant  from  Newfoundland 
and  Quebec  to  Alaska  and  Nova  Scotia  and  west  to  Alaska,  which 
also  occurs  in  Siberia,  the  Himalayas,  and  in  Wyoming;  it  has 
trapezoidal  to  rectangular  leaves  4  to  10  mm.  long  and  is  smaller  in 
all  its  parts,  with  few  stamens  and  fewer  achenes.  The  forage  value 
of  this  plant  varies,  as  a  rule,  from  none  to  low. 

11.  Sagebrush  buttercup  (Ranunculus  glaherrimus  Hook.,  syn. 
R.  anstmae  Greene)  occurs  from  British  Columbia  to  Plumas 
County,  California,  and  west  to  western  Montana  and  western 
Colorado.  In  the  variety  eUipticus  Greene  (syn.  R.  ellipticus 
Greene,  R.  waldronii  Lunell)  the  range  is  extended  farther  south 
to  Nevada  County,  California,  the  north  rim  of  the  Grand  Canyon, 
Arizona,  Rio  Arriba  County,  New  Mexico,  and  east  to  South 
Dakota  and  the  western  edge  of  the  Great  Plains. 

Typical  Ranunculus  glaberrimus  is  a  smooth  perennial  herb 
from  a  cluster  of  fleshy-fibrous  roots,  with  more  or  less  reclining 
stems  11.4  to  7  inches  long;  the  basal  leaves  are  rounded  ovate, 
thick,  about  1  inch  long  and  shallowly  3  or  5  lobed  at  the  tip,  the 
stem  leaves  deeply  3  lobed.  The  petals  are  usually  5,  bright  yellow, 
broadly  obovate,  about  14  to  %  of  an  inch  (6  to  15  mm.)  long. 
The  fruits  (achenes)  are  rounded,  turgid,  1.5  mm.  long,  about 
75  to  150  in  a  rounded  head,  the  beaks  slender  y^  to  V2  3,s  long 
as  the  body ;  the  smooth  receptacle  enlarges  in  fruit. 

Ranunculus  glaberrimus  occurs  in  moist  sandy  or  loamy  soils, 
mostly  in  sagebrush  and  grass-weed  types,  parks  and  open  wood- 
land, between  elevations  of  about  900  and  6,000  feet.  The  var. 
ellipticus  grows  at  higher  elevations,  typically  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains area,  up  to  about  10,000  feet,  in  the  ponderosa  pine,  Jeffrey 
pine,  spruce,  and  fir  belts.  Basal  leaves  of  the  variety  are  up  to  2 
inches  long,  entire,  elliptical  or  reverse  lance  shaped,  tapering  into 
the  leafstalks ;  upper  stem  leaves  have  an  elongated  middle  lobe. 

Benson (^^0^  mentions  Ranunculus  glaherrimus  as  "the  first 
flower  of  spring  throughout  most  of  its  range"  and  Heller  (92) 
states  that  it  is  "the  very  first  plant  to  come  into  bloom  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Reno  (Nevada)  *  *  *  The  earliest  date  upon  which  is  has 
been  found  in  bloom  is  January  5th."  The  larger  flowered  forms  of 
the  plant  are  quite  ornamental.  This  species  ordinarily  has  low 
palatability  but  is  often  taken  in  early  spring  because  of  lack  of 
better  vegetation.  The  higher  range  var.  elliptictis  often  disappears 
by  the  time  livestock  are  admitted  to  the  range ;  it  is  often  small 
but  locally  abundant. 


200  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

12.  Rather  close  botanically  to  sagebrush  buttercup  is  small- 
flower  buttercup  {^Ranunculus  inamoenus  Greene,  syn.  R.  micro- 
petalus  (Greene)  Rydb.],  the  typical  form  of  which  ranges  from 
Alberta  south  to  Custer  County,  Idaho,  western  Montana,  Wyom- 
ing, Colorado,  the  San  Francisco  Peaks  of  northern  Arizona  and 
the  Sacramento  Mountains  of  New  Mexico.  It  is  a  more  or  less 
hairy  plant,  about  4  to  12  inches  high,  the  basal  leaves  simple,  ovate 
to  orbicular,  mostly  entire,  1/2  to  IV2  inches  long,  the  stem  leaves 
with  3  to  5  linear  lobes. 

The  scientific  name  inamoenus  refers  to  the  "unpleasing"  ap- 
pearance of  the  very  small  flowers,  the  petals  being  rather  narrow, 
little  or  not  much  longer  than  the  sepals  and  2.5  to  8  mm.  (less 
than  l^  of  an  inch)  long.  The  obovate  fruits  (achenes),  with 
slender  curved  beaks,  are  crowded  on  a  rough-hairy  receptacle 
that  becomes  twice  longer  (14  to  V^  of  ^n  inch)  in  fruit,  about 
60  to  100  in  number,  and  form  a  more  or  less  cylindrical  head. 

Smallflower  buttercup  occurs  in  moist,  sandy,  gravelly  or  clayey 
loams,  in  grass,  weed,  sagebrush,  woodland  or  open  conifer  types 
up  to  about  10,500  feet.  The  flowering  period  is  from  April  to 
July.  Such  forage  value  as  the  plant  possesses  is  in  early  spring ; 
the  palatability  mostly  is  low.  Castetter  (36)  reports  that  the 
Acoma  and  Laguna  Indians  of  New  Mexico  regard  the  roots  of  this 
buttercup  as  "quite  edible"  but  that  they  sometimes  mistake  the 
roots  for  those  of  the  so-called  "desert  crowfoot"  (Ranunculus 
sceleratus  var.  multifidus  Nutt.,  syn.  R.  eremogenes  Greene)  which 
they  consider  poisonous. 

A  common  variety  of  Ranunculus  inamoenus  is  variety  alpeo- 
philus  (A.  Nels.  L.  Benson  (syns.  R.  alpeophilus  A.  Nels.,  R. 
utahensis  Rydb.),  sometimes  called  "Nelson  buttercup"  and  "Utah 
buttercup."  This  differs  from  the  typical  form  in  being  practically 
hairless  (glabrous)  throughout,  with  3-parted  or  deeply  3-lobed 
basal  leaves  and  a  hairless  receptacle.  It  occurs  from  British 
Columbia  and  Pend  Oreille  County,  northeast  Washington,  to 
Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming,  mostly  in  the  lodgepole  and 
upper  ponderosa  pine  type,  between  elevations  of  8,300  and  10,000 
feet. 

13.  McCauley  buttercup  (Ranunculus  macauleyi  A.  Gray),  al- 
though of  very  limited  range  (south  central  and  southwestern 
Colorado  and  northern  New  Mexico)  is  worthy  of  mention  because 
of  its  handsome  appearance  and  being  one  of  the  very  few  native 
buttercups  in  ornamental  cultivation.  It  is  a  high-range  plant, 
growing  in  wet  places  "among  rocks,  alpine  meadows,  snowbank 
edges,  etc.  The  species  has  been  collected  in  Colorado  at  elevations 
from  9,500  to  12,000  feet,  in  flower  at  various  dates  from  June  4 
to  August  21 ;  in  Colorado  in  red  clay  loam,  associated  with  fescue, 
phlox,  sieversia,  and  sagebrush ;  and  in  New  Mexico  at  13,000  feet, 
well  above  timberline. 

McCauley  buttercup  is  a  low  plant,  about  4  to  6  inches  high, 
from  a  cluster  of  fleshy-fibrous  roots,  soft-hairy  when  young  but 
soon  smooth,  the  thickish  leaves,  mostly  of  an  oblong-elliptic  type, 
2-  to  4-  (sometimes  5-  to  10-)  toothed  at  the  apex.  The  flowers  are 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  201 

large  and  showy,  a  deep  or  bright  yellow,  the  5  or  6  petals  broadly 
obovate  and  about  2.-  of  an  inch  long,  the  sepals  rich  brown  and 
conspicuously  black-hairy,  making  a  striking  contrast  with  the 
petals.  The  fruiting  heads  are  egg  shaped  to  rounded,  the  fruits 
(achenes)  with  very  short,  straight  beaks.  Probably  of  no  great 
importance  as  forage.  The  plant  bears  the  name  of  Lt.  Charles 
Adams  Hoke  McCauley,  U.S.A.,  a  native  of  Maryland,  who  col- 
lected the  type  material  of  the  species  in  San  Juan  County,  Colo., 
in  1877. 

14.  Straightbeak  biittcreup  (Ranunculus  orthorhyncus  Hook.) 
occurs  from  Vancouver  Island  to  California,  apparently  also  in  the 
Yellowstone  Park  region  (northwestern  Wyoming).  In  the  variety 
alaschensis  L.  Benson  is  occurs  on  the  south  coast  of  Alaska  and,  in 
great  straightbeak  buttercup,  or  "giant  buttercup"  [var.  platyphyl- 
lus  A.  Gray,  syns.  R.  maximus  Greene,  R.  platyphyllus  (A.  Gray) 
A.  Nels.,  R.  politus  Greene],  the  range  extends  east  to  Idaho,  west- 
ern Montana,  Wyoming,  and  Utah, 

In  its  typical  form,  this  is  a  rather  stout-stemmed  plant  6  to  20 
inches  high,  from  clustered,  thick-fibrous  roots,  the  herbage  usu- 
ally rough-hairy  with  ascending  hairs.  The  basal  leaves  are  com- 
pound, have  a  slashed  appearance  and  are  up  to  about  6  inches  long, 
pinnately  parted  into  3  to  7  leaflets  and  these  again  twice  forked 
into  narrow  divisions.  The  flowers  are  sometimes  large  and  showy, 
the  sepals  reflexed,  the  5  petals  (often  red  on  the  back)  up  to  %  of 
an  inch  or  more  (8  to  19  mm.)  long.  The  fruits,  about  12  to  20  in 
a  head,  have  a  conspicuous  straight  beak  about  V(5  of  an  inch 
(4  mm.)  long;  the  rough-hairy  receptacle  enlarges  only  slightly  in 
fruit.  The  flowering  period  is  mainly  May  to  July. 

Ranunculus  orthorhyncus  var.  platyphyllus  (syn.  R.  maximus) 
differs  from  the  typical  form  chiefly  in  being  larger  (about  2  to  4 
feet  high),  the  stems  being  stouter  and  the  hairs  more  spreading; 
the  petals  broader  and  shorter;  the  achenes  more  numerous  (20  to 
35)  their  beaks  somewhat  shorter  and  softer,  and  the  receptacle 
more  elongated  (5  to  9  mm.  instead  of  2  to  3)  in  fruit.  This  variety 
is  perhaps  the  largest  of  our  native  buttercups. 

The  species,  in  both  typical  and  platyphyllus  varieties,  occurs  in 
sw^amps,  wet  meadows,  and  other  moist-wet  sites  near  the  coast, 
in  the  foothills  and  in  the  mountains,  from  elevations  as  low  as  300 
feet  to  as  high  as  9,500.  As  a  forage  plant  it  is  frequently  disre- 
garded by  livestock  or  else  nibbled  slightly. 

Watercrowfoot  buttercup  or  "water  crowfoot"  (Ranunculus 
aquatilis  L.),  an  aquatic  Eurasian  buttercup,  is  represented  in  the 
United  States  by  four  varieties,  of  which  the  following  is  much  the 
most  widespread  and  important :  hairleaf  watercrowfoot  buttercup 
[R.  aquatilis  var.  capillaceus  (Thuill.)  DC,  syns.  R.  aquatilis  var. 
trichophyllus  (Chaix)  A.  Gray,  R.  capillaceus  Thuill,,  R.  tricho- 
phyllus  Chaix,  Batrachium  trichophyllum  Chaix,  F.  Schultz]. 
This  variety  occurs  from  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  to  Alaska 
and  south  to  Lower  California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  South  Da- 
kota, Minnesota,  Pennyslvania,  and  New  England.  It  also  occurs 
in  Europe  and  Asia,  The  leaves  are  submersed  and  finely  dissected 


202    AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK   Itll,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

into  hairlike  segments ;  the  flowers  are  white.  The  plant  inhabits 
ponds,  irrigation  ditches,  streams,  wet  meadows,  and  the  like. 

On  western  range  the  forage  value  of  Ranunculus  aquatilis  is 
generally  considered  negligible  or  low.  Long  (123)  indicates  that, 
in  Great  Britain,  "fresh  R.  aqHatilis  is  held  to  be  quite  harmless, 
and  has  been  used  as  a  fodder."  He  quotes  another  author  as  fol- 
lows :  "Along  the  banks  of  the  Hampshire  Avon,  and  other  places 
in  the  same  neighbourhood,  it  is  used  by  the  peasantry  *  *  *  They 
collect  it  in  boats  and  give  it  to  their  cows  and  horses,  allowing  the 
former  about  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  a  day.  One  man  is  said  to 
have  kept  five  cows  and  a  horse  with  little  other  food  but  what  they 
could  pick  up  on  the  heath,  using  no  hay  but  when  the  river  was 
frozen.  Hogs  eat  it  and  will  live  upon  it  alone  until  put  up  to 
fatten." 

Bulbous  buttercup  (Ranunculus  bulbosus  L.),  widely  natural- 
ized from  Europe  and  a  common  pest  in  lawns,  is  a  rather  hand- 
some plant  in  flower,  and  Fernald  and  Kinsey  (70)  report  that  in 
the  spring,  if  thoroughly  dried,  the  bulbous  roots  are  sweet  and 
edible.  They  also  report  that  blister  buttercup  (R.  sceleratus  L.)  — 
at  least  partially  naturalized  from  Europe,  another  weed  in  culti- 
vated ground  (142) — is  used  as  a  potherb  in  Europe  after  thorough 
changing  of  water  to  remove  the  irritating  and  toxic  ingredient 
anemonol.  Pammel  (151)  states  that  it  is  used  in  Europe  by  beg- 
gers  for  making  sores. 

White  globeflower  [TroUius  albiflorus  (A.  Gray)  Rydb.,  syn. 
T.  laxus  var.  albiflorus  A.  Gray]  is  a  handsome,  smooth  herb,  6  to 
24  inches  high,  perennial  from  a  thick  cluster  of  fibrous  roots ;  the 
palmately  divided  basal  and  stem  leaves  are  somewhat  suggestive 
of  those  of  a  larkspur ;  the  white  flowers  are  large,  solitary,  and 
white,  with  about  5  to  8  petallike  sepals,  the  petals  about  as  many, 
inconspicuous  and  with  nectaries  at  the  base;  the  stamens  are 
numerous  and  the  pistils  about  5.  The  fruit  is  a  cluster  or  head  of 
small  pods  (follicles). 

The  plant  is  found  mostly  in  black  mucky  soils,  marshes,  wet 
meadows,  streambanks  and  the  like  at  higher  elevations  from 
British  Columbia  and  Alberta  to  western  Montana,  Colorado, 
northern  Utah,  and  Washington.  It  appears  to  be  absent  from 
Oregon.  It  has  been  collected  at  elevations  as  low  as  4,000  feet 
in  Washington  and  as  high  as  11,500  feet  in  Colorado.  The  flower- 
ing period  is  mostly  June  and  July  and  the  fruiting  period  August 
and  September.  In  most  places  the  forage  value  is  negligible  or  of 
distinctly  minor  importance  though  sheep  may  sometimes  be  seen 
to  pick  off  the  leaves  and  flowers.  However,  deer  and  elk  may  take 
it  rather  freely  in  early  summer,  and  it  is  reported  to  be  grazed 
by  mountain  sheep  and  mountain  goats. 

Some  authors  prefer  to  merge  Trollins  albiflorus  with  the  typi- 
cally eastern  American  globeflower  (T.  laxus  Salisb.),  and  it  was 
originally  described  as  a  variety  of  that  species;  however,  the 
widely  separated  range,  the  different  flower  color  (T.  laxus  has 
greenish-yellow  flowers),  and  broader  sepals  of  the  western  plant 
make  it  seem  preferable  to  keep  the  latter  distinct.   These  2  are 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  203 

the  only  American  species  of  the  genus ;  the3%  together  with  about 
8  Asiatic  and  European  species,  are  in  ornamental  cultivation,  the 
flower  colors  varying  from  white  to  yellow  and  purple. 

PeOiNy  Tribe  (Paeonihae) 
Peony  (Paeonia) 

Perennial  herbs  or  small  shrubs,  all  native  to  Europe  and  Asia 
except  for  two  species  in  Western  United  States.  They  have  thick 
roots ;  ternately  or  pinnately  compound  or  dissected  leaves ;  large 
and  showy,  purple,  red,  white  or  yellow  flowers,  with  5  to  10  (much 
increased  in  cultivated  double  flowers),  often  thick  and  roundish 
sepals  and  petals,  numerous  stamens  on  a  disk,  and  2  to  5  pistils 
ripening  in  fruit  into  thick,  leathery,  oblonglish  "pods,"  or  follicles 
with  large,  rather  fleshy  seeds. 

Practically  all  species  of  Paeonia  are  in  ornamental  cultivation, 
but  the  common  herbaceous  peony  of  the  gardens  consists  of  many 
forms  of  the  common  peony  [P.  lactiflora  Pall.,  syns.  P.  alhifiora 
Pall.,  P.  edulis  Salisb.,  P.  fragrans  Redoute],  of  Siberia  and  China 
whose  starchy  tuberous  roots  are  used  as  food  in  its  native  coun- 
tries. Unfortunately  this  species  has  been  much  confused  in  the 
books  with  drug  peony  (P.  officinalis  L.),  a  little-cultivated  species 
of  southern  Europe  and  western  Asia,  with  white-woolly  fruits 
and  nontapered  leaf  segments,  and  which  formerly  was  an  official 
drug  plant.  The  Chinese  so-called  tree  peony  (P.  suffruticosa  Haw., 
syns.  P.  arborea  Donn,  P.  moiitan  Sims)  is  also  in  common  cultiva- 
tion in  this  country. 

The  genus  has  been  monographed  by  Stern  (190).  There  is  an 
American  Peony  Society,  which  issues  books  and  other  literature 
on  cultivated  peony  varieties.  Paian,  or  Paion  (Anglicized  to  Paean 
or  Paeon)  was  the  mythological  physician  of  the  gods  on  Mt.  Olym- 
pus and  with  his  name,  apparently,  were  connected  more  or  less 
closely,  Paeonia,  a  province  of  ancient  Macedonia,  Paeonian  (an 
epithet  of  Apollo,  god  of  medicine),  and  paean,  a  thanksgiving 
hymn  addressed  to  Apollo  or  Artemis.  Tournefort  (1656-1708), 
"the  father  of  plant  genera,"  gives  the  meaning  of  Paeonia  (and 
peony)  as  follows :  "Paeonia  a  Paeone  Medico,  qui  ea  curasse  per- 
hibetur  Plutonem  ab  Hercule  vulneratum,  ut  refert  Homerus 
Odyss." — that  is,  from  the  mythological  Paeon  who,  according  to 
Homer's  Odyssey,  cured  Pluto  with  this  plant  when  he  was  wounded 
by  Hercules. 

BrowTis  peony  (Paeonia  brownii  Dougl.)  (fig.  44)  was  origi- 
nally collected  by  David  Douglas  ("Douglas  of  the  Fir")  near  per- 
petual snow  on  Mt.  Hood,  Oregon,  in  1826,  and  named  by  him  after 
Robert  Brown  (1778-1858),  eminent  British  botanist.  It  is  often 
locally  known  as  "skookumroot"  and  "watermelon  plant." 

The  species  ranges  from  Vancouver  Island  south  to  California 
and  east  to  Utah,  Wyoming,  Idaho,  and  Alberta.  Harrington  (90) 
suspects  its  occurrence  in  northwestern  Colorado  but  apparently 
it  has  never  been  collected  nor  observed  in  that  State.  In  Oregon 
and  Washington  Browns  peony  occurs  principally  on  the  east  side 


204  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IHl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  44. — Browns  peony 
{Paenokt,  brownii  Dougl.) . 


of  the  Cascade  Mountains ;  it  extends  southward  in  California  as 
far  as  Santa  Clara  and  Tuolomne  Counties  (188)  but  is  rare  in  the 
Coastal  Range.  Although  rather  common  in  the  Pacific  States  and 
in  parts  of  Idaho  and  Nevada,  the  species  is  extremely  rare  in  Utah. 
Browns  peony  is  a  more  or  less  bluish-  (glaucous)  green  and  suc- 
culent perennial  herb,  with  numerous  leafy  stems  8  to  20  inches 
high  coming  from  an  elongated  thick  woody  taproot  often  with 
fleshy  and  starchy,  almost  tuberous  branches,  long-stalked  and 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS  205 

ternately  compound  leaves  and  solitary,  terminal,  drooping  flow- 
ers with  5  or  6  thick  and  leathery,  dull  brownish-red  petals,  which 
soon  fall  off.  The  petals  extend  but  slightly  beyond  the  (5  or  6) 
sepals,  which  are  usually  of  the  same  hue  as  the  foliage.  The 
flowers  are  often  fragrant,  but  the  leaves  and  stems  have  a  peculiar 
odor.  When  young,  the  stems  are  erect  but  droop  as  they  mature 
until  the  fruits  finally  rest  upon  the  ground.  Ants  and  possibly 
other  insects  manifest  a  peculiar  liking  for  the  tissues  of  this  plant 
and  sometimes  destroy  the  flowers  and  honeycomb  the  leaves. 

Browns  peony  grows  through  a  rather  wide  range  of  habitat 
conditions  varying  from  fairly  dry  mixed  bunchgrass,  weed,  and 
sagebrush  types  to  cool,  moist  slopes  near  perpetual  snow.  It 
ranges  from  about  1,000  feet  above  sea  level  to  elevations  of  more 
than  8,000  feet;  in  Idaho  mostly  between  4,000  and  6,500,  in  Ne- 
vada between  6,500  and  8,000  feet,  and  in  California  between  3,000 
and  6,000  feet.  It  usually  occupies  well-drained  sites,  chiefly  sandy 
or  gravelly  loams  both  of  granitic  and  limestone  origin,  but  may 
inhabit  brushy  hillsides,  rich  black  soil,  or  grow  in  open  stands  of 
aspen  or  coniferous  timber.  The  plant  generally  occurs  in  scattered 
clumps  and  seldom,  if  ever,  in  pure  stands.  Ordinarily  comprises 
but  a  small  part  of  the  plant  cover. 

This  species  starts  growth  early  in  the  season,  customarily  being 
among  the  first  of  the  flowering  plants  to  appear  in  the  spring ;  the 
flowering  period  is  chiefly  late  April  through  June.  The  succulent 
leafage  usually  matures  early,  and,  except  in  the  moister  and  more 
shaded  sites,  becomes  dry,  brittle,  and  worthless  for  forage  before 
the  close  of  the  grazing  season.  Consequently,  this  plant  is  of  most 
value  for  forage  on  ranges  grazed  in  spring  and  early  summer. 

In  general,  as  Sampson  (176)  indicates,  the  succulent  herbage 
of  Browns  peony  is  eaten  with  relish  by  sheep  but  only  lightly  by 
cattle.  However,  the  palatability  varies  somewhat ;  on  some  ranges 
it  is  rated  as  only  fair  for  sheep  and  worthless  for  cattle,  and  some 
observers  even  report  that  it  is  never  grazed  at  all  in  their  locali- 
ties. This  species  appears  unable  to  withstand  close  cropping  for 
many  consecutive  seasons.  In  preliminary  range  reseeding  trials 
on  the  Wasatch  Plateau  in  central  Utah  (75),  Browns  peony  be- 
came established  from  the  original  seeding  but  failed  to  reproduce. 

The  late  Dr.  Stockberger  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  (now 
Agricultural  Research  Service)  wrote  the  Forest  Service  about 
Browns  peony  as  follows : 

"  •=  *  *  there  is  a  decided  lack  of  experimental  data  on  the  (supposititious) 
toxicity  of  this  plant.  In  northern  California  the  leaves  are  locally  reputed 
poisonous  to  touch,  but  the  root  has  been  considered  a  good  remedy  for 
dyspepsia  when  eaten  raw.  Some  years  ago  the  herbaceous  parts  of  this 
plant  were  collected  on  an  area  reputed  'poisonous,  where  it  was  abundant.' 
An  alcoholic  extract  was  prepared  from  this  material  and  25  grams  of  it 
administered  to  a  rabbit  weighing  4  lbs.,  3  oz.  without  toxic  effect. 
Although  the  data  at  hand  are  insufficient  to  permit  the  drawing  of 
definite  conclusions,  the  balance  of  available  evidence  does  not  lend  much 
support  to  the  assumption  that  Paeonia  brownii  is  harmful." 

In  addition  to  the  local  medicinal  use  of  the  plant  mentioned  by 
Dr.  Stockberger,  there  is  frequent  mention  in  literature  of  the  use 


206    AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

of  the  thick  roots  of  Browns  peony  by  Indians  in  doctoring  colds, 
sore  throat,  and  to  give  their  horses  long  wind.  Old  settlers  along 
the  Salmon  River  in  Idaho  (and  possibly  elsewhere)  prize  this 
plant  as  an  alleged  cure  for  rheumatism. 

Due  apparently  to  the  prestige  of  Torrey  and  Gray,  a  second 
native  peony,  California  peony  [Paeonia  caUfornica  Nutt.,  syn.P. 
hrowiiii  ssp.  caUfornica  (Nutt.)  Abrams],  has  been  ignored  in  the 
manuals.  This  has  contributed  to  confusion  about  the  range  and 
other  characters  of  Browns  peony.  Stebbins  (188)  has  presented 
cogent  arguments  that  Greene  (8.!,.)  was  correct  in  restoring  this 
species  in  1890.  California  peony  has  a  quite  different  range,  from 
sea  level  to  about  4,000  feet  in  south  central  and  southern  Califor- 
nia from  Monterey  to  San  Diego  Counties,  the  type  locality  being 
near  Santa  Barbara. 

Unlike  Browns  peony,  California  peony  is  not  hardy,  is  a  taller 
(up  to  30  inches),  more  stemmy  (up  to  30),  more  branching  and 
leafier  plant,  with  thin  and  soon  wilting,  green  rather  than  bluish 
foliage,  elliptic  rather  than  rounded  petals,  and  flowers  of  a  deep 
blackish-red  hue.  The  leaf  divisions  are  quite  different,  the  pri- 
mary divisions  or  segments  with  an  elongated,  gradually  tapered 
and  narrow  wedgelike  base  and  narrower  and  usually  more  elon- 
gated ultimate  segments  with  usually  sharp-pointed  rather  than 
blunt  lobes.  Reference  to  the  illustrations,  table,  and  key  in  Steb- 
bins' paper  (188)  will  make  these  points  clearer. 

California  peony  grows  in  and  along  stream  bottoms  and  in 
chamise  and  woodland-grass  types,  blooming  in  January  and  Feb- 
ruary and  fruiting  in  March  and  April.  It  is  sometimes  known 
locally  by  the  misnomer  "Christmas-rose."  More  information  as  to 
its  palatability  to  domestic  livestock  and  wildlife  is  needed. 

BARBERRY  FAMILY  (BERBERIDAGEAE) 

This  is  a  family  of  shrubs  or  herbs  with  alternate  or  basal  leaves, 
flowers  with  sepals  and  petals  (which  are  occasionally  absent)  ar- 
ranged shinglewise  (imbricated)  in  bud  and  usually  in  2  rows  of 
3  each ;  stamens  inserted  under  the  ovary  and  usually  equaling  the 
petals  and  opposite  them ;  the  fruit  a  berry  or  capsule.  The  group 
is  closely  related  botanically  to  the  buttercup  family  (Ranuncu- 
laceae) ;  barberry  family  anthers  (except  in  the  somewhat  anoma- 
lous genus  PodophTjllum)  open  by  two  flaplike  uplifted  valves,  and 
there  is  only  one  pistil  .(instead  of  many).  The  woody  barberry 
(Berheris)  and  mahonia  or  "hollygrape"  (Mahonia,  syn.  Odoste- 
mon)  genera  are  annotated  in  Important  Western  Browse  Plants 
(5^)  and  the  Range  Plant  Handbook  (20^) .  In  addition,  there  are 
two  western  herbaceous  genera  of  the  family. 

Vanillaleaf  [Achlys  triphyUa  (Smith)  DC],  known  also  as  "deer- 
foot,"  "sweet-after-death, "and  "threeleaf ,"  was  long  thought  to  be 
the  only  species  of  the  genus  until  a  second  one  was  later  discovered 
in  Japan.  It  is  a  herb,  with  an  agreeable  vanillalike  fragrance, 
perennial  from  creeping  scaly  rootstocks,  and  ranges,  commonly  in 
damp  sites  under  the  shade  of  Douglas-fir,  western  hemlock,  spruce 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  207 

and  other  conifers,  from  British  Columbia  south  to  Mendocino 
County,  California. 

Vanillaleaf  has  a  solitary,  long-stalked,  3-leafletted  leaf,  the  2 
broad  lateral  leaflets  somewhat  suggesting  a  butterfly's  wings,  and 
a  naked  flower  stalk,  up  to  about  16  inches  high,  with  a  terminal 
spike  of  white,  fragrant  sepalless  and  petalless  flowers,  with  6  to 
13  stamens,  and  succeeded  by  the  small,  somewhat  kidney-shaped 
and  reddish  or  purplish  fruits.  It  ranges  from  a  little  above  sea 
level  to  about  4,000  to  5,000  feet  in  Oregon  and  Washingon.  In 
general  the  forage  value  of  this  plant  is  low  to  negligible;  it  is, 
however,  of  moderate  value  as  deer  and  elk  feed  in  spring  and,  in 
places,  assumes  a  little  importance. 

Vancouveria  (Vancouveria) 

A  genus  of  three  species,  commemorating  the  British  navigator 
Capt.  George  Vancouver  (1758-98),  sometimes  called  "inside-out- 
flower,"  is  confined  to  the  coastal  region  of  the  Pacific  Northwest. 
They  are  perennial,  essentially  stemless  (save  for  the  leaf  and 
flower  stalks)  herbs  from  slender,  more  or  less  woody  rootstocks, 
with  leaves  twice  or  thrice  compounded  in  3's  and  somewhat  sug- 
gesting those  of  some  maidenhair-fern ;  nodding  flowers  with  nar- 
row, bent  backwards  (reflexed)  sepals  and  petals  in  6's,  the  petals 
with  hoodlike  nectaries  at  the  tip ;  6  protruded  stamens  with 
beaked  anthers,  and  a  small  2-valved  fruit. 

The  commonest  species  is  probably  white  vancouveria  [F.  hex- 
andrn  (Hook.)  Morr.  &  Dec],  ranging  from  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Nisqually  River,  western  Washington,  south  to  Mendocino  County, 
California  ;  it  has  been  reported  also  (but  perhaps  somewhat  ques- 
tionably) from  southern  Vancouver  Island  and  southwestern  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  chiefly  in  dense  Douglas-fir  and  western  hemlock 
forests.  The  leaves  are  basal,  with  relatively  thin  and  deciduous, 
somewhat  shield-shaped  leaflets.  The  flowering  and  fruiting  stems 
are  up  to  about  16  inches  high,  smooth  and  with  relatively  few, 
white  flowers  up  to  about  1/2  inch  long. 

Where  abundant  the  species  assumes  some  forage  significance. 
On  the  Rogue  River  (formerly  Crater)  National  Forest  (Oregon) 
estimates  of  its  fall  palatability  to  cattle  have  run  as  high  as  50 
percent.  The  related  yellow-flowered,  glandular-hairy  yellow  van- 
couveria (V.  chrysantha  Greene)  hos  been  reported  to  have  "no 
apparent  forage  value." 

POPPY  FAMILY   (PAPAVERAGEAE) 

There  are  12  genera  and  about  41  species  of  this  family  in  the 
Far  West.  However,  Dr.  Edward  L,  Greene,  formerly  consulting 
expert  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  in  matters  of  plant  nomencla- 
ture, separated  creamcups  {Platystemon  calif ornicus  Benth.)  into 
52  species,  and  the  goklpoppy  genus  (Eschschohia)  has  lent  itself 
to  similar  treatment  at  the  hands  of  various  specialists.  California 
is  easily  the  center  of  distribution. 

Members  of  this  family  often  have  milky,  colored,  acrid,  or 


208    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

narcotic  juices.  Bushpoppy  (Dentlromencon),  a  California  genus 
of  two  species,  is  shrubby,  and  the  monotypic,  southern  California 
— Lower  California  Matilija-poppy  (Romneya  coulteri  Harvey)  is 

half  shrubby,  with  a  woody  base.  The  rest  of  our  species  are  herbs 
with  mostly  alternate,  simple  or  compound  leaves.  In  Meconella, 
however,  a  Pacific  genus  of  low  annuals,  the  leaves  are  opposite, 
and  they  are  often  opposite  in  Platystemon  or,  as  in  the  annual 
genus  Canhya,  largely  in  basal  tufts. 

The  flowers,  often  showy,  usually  have  2  sepals  that  fall  off  when 
the  petals  expand  as  do  likewise,  a  few  days  later,  the  mostly  4  to 
12  often  wrinkled  petals.  In  Canbya  and  Platystemon,  however, 
the  sepals  are  3;  they  are  usually  3  in  Meconella  and  often  3  in 
bearpoppy  (Arctomecon)  and  pricklepoppy  (Argemone).  In  Arcto- 
mecon,  the  withered  petals  persist  around  the  capsule  base,  and  in 
Platystemon  the  petals  are  only  tardily  deciduous.  In  the  Oriental 
plumepoppy  (Macleaya),  much  cultivated  as  an  ornamental,  the 
petals  are  absent.  The  stamens  are  distinct,  usually  numerous  but 
may  be  as  few  as  5  or  6,  the  pistil  usually  single.  Ordinarily  the 
fruit  is  a  capsule  opening  by  valves  or  pores  or,  if  the  pistils  are 
two  or  more,  a  group  of  larkspurlike  follicles  are  developed,  open- 
ing to  discharge  the  copious  small  seeds. 

As  a  class,  the  poppy  family  is  largely  characteristic  of  dry  warm 
sites.  However,  there  are  at  least  seven  species  of  true  poppies 
(Papaver)  in  Alaska,  and  some  members  of  the  family  have  become 
acclimated  to  boreal  conditions  and  are  found  as  far  north  as  any 
flowering  plant  can  grow.  In  parts  of  the  West,  notably  California 
and  the  Southwest,  Papaveraceae  are  sometimes  extremely  abun- 
dant and  give,  for  a  time  at  least,  a  chief  character  to  the  local 
landscape.  Many  of  them,  with  their  gay-colored,  frilled  flowers, 
are  prized  as  ornamentals.  The  group  is  active  chemically  and  the 
narcotic  properties  of  the  type  genus  Papaver  have  been  known 
and  utilized  by  man  since  prehistoric  times.  Especially  is  this  true 
of  the  type  species,  opium  poppy  (F.  somniferum  L.)?  from  which 
opium  and  its  constituents  are  derived.  Morphine,  in  fact,  is  re- 
puted to  have  been  the  first  alkaloid  isolated  and  named  by 
chemists. 

As  forage  plants  Papaveraceae  are  relatively  unimportant.  With 
the  possible  exception  of  Eschschohia  they  are  disliked  by  livestock 
which  will,  however,  consume  them  if  there  is  a  shortage  of  better 
feed.  While  the  family  has  a  record  of  poisoning  stock  in  Europe, 
the  writer  is  unaware  of  any  similar  record  for  western  range 
species.  However,  it  is  possible  that  members  of  this  group  may 
have  been  involved  in  obscure  cases  of  sickness  or  loss.  Where 
abundant  on  the  range,  it  is  the  safest  policy  to  regard  them  with 
some  degree  of  suspicion.  They  are  probably  more  dangerous  in 
fruit  than  at  any  other  time,  since,  the  narcotic  properties  appar- 
ently are  resident  mostly  in  the  capsules. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS  209 

Pricklepoppy  (Argemone) 

Argemone^^  is  a  genus  of  about  10  species,  of  which  about  6  are 
in  the  western  range  area.  They  are  annual,  biennial  or  perennial, 
bluish,  very  prickly  herbs,  or  one  Mexican  and  one  or  two  South 
American  species  shrubby ;  the  acrid  juice  is  yellow,  orange  colored, 
or  whitish.  The  alternate  leaves,  clasping  at  the  base,  are  divided 
like  an  oak  leaf  (piimatifid)  or  have  wavy  edges  (sinuate),  the 
divisions  ending  in  a  stout  prickle.  The  showy  flowers,  erect  in 
bud,  are  mostly  white  but  are  sometimes  yellowish  or  rose  colored ; 
the  2  or  3  sepals  have  a  hornlike  appendage  below  the  tip,  the 
petals  4  or  6,  stamens  numerous  and  forming  a  conspicuous  yellow 
center,  the  stigma  stalkless  (sessile) .  The  fruit  is  an  oblong  capsule 
opening  from  the  top  by  4  to  6  valves,  and  contains  numerous 
rounded  seeds  with  a  latticelike  surf  ace.'*^ 

Their  extreme  prickliness  and  questionable  palatability  render 
these  plants  unattractive,  as  a  rule,  to  range  livestock,  and  their 
abundance  locally  may  be  an  indication  of  overgrazing.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  all  species  possess  narcotic  properties,  and,  when  abun- 
dant on  badly  overgrazed  areas,  may  be  potential  sources  of  sick- 
ness. They  are  often  called  "thistle  poppy"  and,  by  Mexican  people, 
"chicalote."  At  least  three  species  have  become  locally  naturalized 
in  the  Eastern  States  and  several  are  in  ornamental  cultivation  as 
"annuals"  because  of  their  handsome  flowers. 

Intermediate  pricklepoppy  (Argemone  intermedia  Sweet)  is 
closely  related  to  the  more  common  A.  platyceras  but  the  capsules 
are  sparsely  instead  of  densely  prickly,  the  stems  without  hairs 
or  only  sparsely  hairy,  the  slender  sepal  horns  elongated  and  swol- 
len at  the  base  only.  It  occurs  on  deserts,  mesas,  foothills,  and  in 
the  woodland  type  from  South  Dakota  to  Colorado,  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  and  Arizona,  and  south  into  northern  Mexico.  It  has  be- 
come introduced  and  locally  naturalized  in  Illinois  and  elsewhere. 
It  blooms  almost  continuously  from  the  seedling  stage  and  is  seldom 
observed  to  be  grazed. 

Mexican  pricklepoppy  (Argemone  mexicana  L.),  the  botanical 
type  of  the  genus,  has  pale  yellow  to  orange-colored  flowers  and 
sparsely  spiny  foliage  with  light  blotches.  It  was  originally  known 
from  Mexico  but  has  been  extensively  cultivated  and  is  now  escaped 
and  locally  naturalized  almost  throughout  the  United  States,  es- 
pecially in  the  South.  It  is  also  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
tropics,  in  Australia,  Africa,  and  many  other  (especially  warmer) 
parts  of  the  world. 

Pammel  (151)  reports  that  the  prickly  pods  and  leaves  of  both 
Argemone  mexicana  and  A.  intermedia  cause  severe  mechanical 


*-The  name  Argemone  appears  to  have  originated  with  the  illustrious  French 
botanist  Joseph  Pitton  Tournefort  (1656-1708),  "the  father  of  genera  who 
evidently  put  in  roman  letters  a  name  used  by  a  Greek  medical  writer,  appar- 
ently of  the  first  century  A.D.,  for  a  kind  of  sore  or  ulcer  of  the  cornea  of  the 
eye  for  which  argemone  was  deemed  a  remedy. 

*3Botanically,  Argemone  is  close  to  the  poppies  (Papaver  spp.).  It  differs 
chiefly  in  that  it  has  mostly  white  flowers  that  are  not  nodding  in  bud  and  very 
different  fruits.   It  also  differs  in  its  prickliness. 


210    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

injury  and  inflammation.  Schneider  (180)  states  that  A.  mexicana 
"has  marked  emetic,  purgative,  and  narcotic  properties."  Kearney 
and  Peebles  (109)  mention  the  local  use  of  the  "acrid  yellow  juice 
of  A.  mexicana  *  *  *  to  treat  cutaneous  diseases." 

Crested  pricklepoppy  (Argemone  platyceras  Link  &  Otto)  (fig. 
45)  is,  with  its  variety  hispida,  probably  the  commonest  member  of 
the  genus.  It  ranges  from  western  Nebraska  and  southern  Wyo- 
ming to  Colorado,  California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  western 
Texas,  and  south  to  Mexico  (the  type  locality).  Owing  to  cultiva- 
tion as  an  ornamental,  it  has  become  locally  naturalized  in  Oregon 
and  probably  elsewhere. 

Crested  pricklepoppy  is  a  coarse,  stout,  spiny-prickly  biennial 
or  short-lived  perennial  herb,  the  stem  prickly-bristly  with  straw- 
colored  prickles,  the  herbage  bluish  (glaucous).  The  alternate, 
pinnatifid  or  lobed  and  clasping  leaves  are  without  blotches.  The 
large,  showy  flowers  are  about  4  inches  broad,  with  2  (rarely  3) 
deciduous,  horned  sepals,  the  horns  dilated  and  spiny,  the  petals  4, 
early  deciduous,  thin,  and  delicate.  The  four  valves  of  the  fruiting 
capsules  are  densely  armed  with  prickles. 

This  species  is  found  from  near  sea  level  to  about  7,500  feet, 
often  in  dry  sandy  soils  on  plains,  hillsides,  canyons,  draws,  and  in 
woodland  and  ponderosa  pine  parks.  Frequently  it  is  a  dominant 
weed  especially  on  severely  overgrazed  ranges.  The  main  flowering 
period  is  May  to  September,  but  it  may  be  found  in  bloom  at  any 
time  when  climatic  conditions  permit.  Ordinarily  the  palatability 
is  nil,  but  the  plant  may  occasionally  be  observed  to  be  nibbled  by 
cattle  when  it  is  young  and  tender. 

So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  no  feeding  experiments  with  this 
species  have  ever  been  conducted,  but  there  is  every  likelihood  that 
it  is  more  or  less  poisonous.  The  seed,  however,  seems  to  be  harm- 
less and  is  a  favorite  local  item  for  seed-eating  birds,  such  as  doves. 
The  prickles  are  highly  irritating  to  the  skin  of  many  people. 

Hedgehog  pricklepoppy  {^Argemone  platyceras  var.  hispida  (A. 
Gray)  Prain,  syn.  A.  hispida  A.  Gray]  differs  from  typical  A. 
platyceras  chiefly  in  having  the  stems  rough-hairy  (hispid)  in  addi- 
tion to  being  densely  prickly.  The  root  is  woody  and  sometimes 
branched  at  the  crown  and  a  yellow  latex  oozes  from  freshly  cut 
stems.  It  has  a  relatively  similar  range  and  distribution  but  tends, 
on  the  whole,  to  grow  at  somewhat  higher  altitudes  and  more 
northern  areas.  It  is  not  known  to  be  eaten  by  range  livestock. 

Goldpoppy  (Eschscholzia) 

Eschscholzia,'^'^  an  attractive  genus  native  to  western  North 
America,  has  been  subjected  to  considerable  "splitting,"  but  there 
are  possibly  as  many  as  11  or  12  species,  conservatively  speaking. 


*4The  original  spelling  Eschscholzia,  as  against  the  more  familiar  Esch- 
scholtzia,  is  here  retained  in  conformity  with  the  International  Code  of  Botan- 
ical Nomenclature.  The  name  was  established  by  the  German  naturalist  and 
poet  Adelbert  von  Chamisso  (1781-1838)  in  honor  of  his  friend  and  companion 
Dr.  Johann  Friedrich  Eschscholtz  (1793-1831),  German  physician,  naturalist, 
and  poet,  both  of  whom  visited  California  in  1816. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


211 


F-480397 

Figure  45. — Crested  pricklepoppy  (Argemone  platyceras  Link  &  Otto). 


212    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

in  the  western  range  country.  These  plants  are  mostly  smooth 
(glabrous),  often  bluish  (glaucous)  annuals  or  short-lived  peren- 
nials, with  colorless,  bitter  sap,  (ternately)  dissected  leaves,  and 
attractive  orange  or  yellow  flowers  borne  on  a  funnel-shaped, 
dilated  receptacle  (torus)  around  the  base  of  the  ovary. 

The  two  sepals,  adhering  together  in  a  pointed,  hoodlike  cap 
(calyptra),  fall  off  as  the  petals  expand.  The  petals,  usually  4  but 
sometimes  as  many  as  8,  surround  the  numerous  stamens  that  have 
short  stalks  (filaments)  and  linear  anthers;  the  stigma  is  4  to  6, 
linear  lobed.  The  fruiting  capsules  are  elongated,  10  nerved,  sep- 
arating from  the  base  and  contain  the  rounded,  netted  or  minutely 
warty  seeds  which,  when  ripe,  are  expelled  with  considerable  force. 

These  plants  are  especially  characteristic  of  dry,  often  desertlike 
sites  where,  in  bloom,  they  may  be  the  chief  local  feature  of  the 
landscape.  They  appear  to  have  no  great  forage  importance  and, 
pending  further  study,  perhaps  should  be  regarded  with  a  little 
suspicion  in  view  of  the  toxic  alkaloids  some  are  known  to  possess. 
Except  possibly  for  little  goldpoppy  (Eschscholzia  minutiflora  S. 
Wats.)  of  the  Great  Basin  and  Southwest,  which  has  very  small 
flowers,  probably  most  or  all  of  the  species  are  in  ornamental 
cultivation. 

California-poppy  (Eschscholzia  calif ornica  Cham.),^^  the  copa  de 
oro  (cup  of  gold)  of  Spanish- Americans,  is  a  variable  plant,  almost 
a  hundred  segregated  ''species"  of  it  having  been  proposed  by  some 
botanists.  It  may  be  an  annual  or  a  short-lived  perennial  from  a 
sometimes  thick  and  branching  rootstock,  the  stems  more  or  less 
ascending  or  trailing. 

The  leaves  (bluish  in  the  typical  coastal  form)  are  thrice  com- 
pounded (ternately  decompound) ,  the  segments  linear  to  oblong, 
smooth  and  hairless,  or  sometimes  slightly  and  minutely  hairy. 
The  mostly  4,  fan-shaped  petals  may  be  as  much  as  21/2  inches  long 
or  considerably  smaller,  bright  yellow  in  the  typical  form  and  vary- 
ing to  orange,  the  flowers  borne  on  the  characteristic  torus  (an 
enlarged,  funnel-shaped  receptacle  surrounding  the  ovary)  which, 
in  this  species,  has  tivo  rims,  the  inner  one  erect,  the  outer  and 
lower  one  spreading.   The  seeds  are  netted-veined. 

The  typical  form  is  found  on  sandy  bluffs  and  dunes  along  the 
California  coast.  It  is  found  in  grass,  chamise,  sagebrush,  and 
other  types,  often  in  grainfields,  railroad  rights-of-way,  dry 
washes,  etc.,  growing  in  full  sunlight.  Because  of  extensive  culti- 
vation as  an  ornamental,  California-poppy  is  now  locally  natural- 
ized in  practically  every  Western  State,  as  well  as  in  Europe,  Aus- 
tralia, and  elsewhere. 

Ordinarily,  as  a  forage  plant,  California-poppy  is  rated  poor  for 
cattle  and  fair  for  sheep.  As  silage,  however,  the  palatability  ap- 
pears to  be  enhanced.  Westover  (208),  in  one  study  of  this  plant 

•i^California-poppy  is  the  official  State  flower  of  California.  The  author  of 
both  the  genus  and  the  species  is  the  romantic  figure  Adelbert  Louis  Charles 
Adelaide  von  Chamisso  (1781-1838).  Driven  from  France  by  the  Revolution, 
he  became  an  early  German  explorer  of  the  California  coast,  botanist,  poet, 
song  writer,  and  author  of  the  celebrated  Peter  Schlemihl,  the  story  of  the 
man  who  sold  his  shadow. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE   FORBS  213 

harvested  when  in  full  bloom,  found  the  cured  silage  wet  and  slimy 
but  with  a  pleasant  odor;  he  states  that  it  was  taken  readily  by 
cattle.  The  plant,  after  boiling  or  roasting  and  then  rinsing,  was 
a  food  plant  among  California  Indians.  Smith  (ISl)  and  Schneider 
(180)  mention  its  being  prized  by  Spanish-Americans  as  a  hair 
tonic;  the  flowers  (dried  in  the  sun)  or  the  boiled  leaves  were 
treated  with  olive  oil,  the  mixture  strained,  and  perfume  added. 
The  U.S.  Dispensatory  (1J^7)  states  that  the  plant  contains  an 
alkaloid,  which  apparently  has  a  sedative  effect,  and  that  it  has 
been  used  locally  to  relieve  headache,  toothache,  and  insomnia. 

Eschscholzia  calif ornica  var.  crocea  (Benth.)  Jepson  occurs  from 
the  Columbia  River  valley,  southern  Washington,  to  northern  Baja 
California,  at  higher  elevations  than  the  typical  form,  in  foothills 
and  valleys  almost  up  to  the  ponderosa  pine  belt.  Jepson  (10J^) 
mentions  that  it  has  two  seasonal  phases.  In  spring,  the  flowers 
are  large  and  deep  orange,  the  stems  numerous  and  erect,  and  the 
torus,  or  swollen  receptacle  at  the  base  of  the  flowers,  very  pro- 
nounced. In  summer,  the  stems  are  fewer  and  more  spreading,  the 
buds  much  shorter  and  short  pointed,  the  flowers  smaller,  pale  or 
straw  colored,  and  the  torus,  or  receptacle,  reduced.  The  juice  of 
the  roots  is  sometimes  reddish. 

Mexican  goldpoppy  [Eschscholzia  mexicana  Greene,  syn.  E.  par- 
Villa  (A.  Gray)  Cockerell]  (fig.  46)  grows  on  dry  plains  and  foot- 
hills, mostly  in  the  sagebrush  and  creosotebush  belts,  from  western 
Texas  to  southern  Utah,  southern  Nevada,  Arizona,  and  Sonora, 
up  to  about  4,500  feet.  It  is  a  (largely  winter)  annual,  with  bluish 
(glaucous)  herbage,  the  dissected  leaves  largely  basal.  The  showy 
orange-colored  (more  rarely  light  yellow,  white  or  pinkish)  flow- 
ers appear  from  February  to  May ;  the  stamens  are  20  or  more,  the 
fruiting  capsules  elongated,  10  nerved,  opening  their  full  length 
from  base  to  apex  to  discharge  the  numerous  dark  seeds  that  have 
a  wrinkled  and  netted  surface. 

The  abundance  of  the  plant  fluctuates  greatly  from  year  to  year 
due  to  seasonal  variations  in  rainfall.  Ordinarily  the  palatability 
is  low,  but  there  is  a  great  difference  of  published  opinion  on  this 
matter.  Thornber  (201)  speaks  of  its  abundance  on  spring  range 
in  Arizona  between  2,500  and  4,500  feet  and  states  that  it  is  "con- 
siderably grazed."  Grifl^ths  (86),  while  admitting  that  it  is  grazed 
during  winter  and  spring  on  various  Southwestern  grazing  grounds, 
intimates  that  personal  observation  "does  not  entirely  confirm 
these  views"  of  good  palatability.  Reported  observations  of  palata- 
bility as  high  as  95  percent  for  cattle  and  horses  undoubtedly  are 
correlated  with  absence  or  scarcity  of  more  nutritious  and  palatable 
vegetation. 

Poppy  (Papaver) 

The  poppy  genus  is  largely  confined  to  the  Old  World  and  has 
lent  itself  greatly  to  what  is  called  botanical  "splitting."  The  no- 
menclature of  our  native  species  is  still  somewhat  in  dispute. 
Several  Old  World  species  are  locally  naturalized  from  gardens. 


214    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


F-487819 

Figure  46. — Mexican  goldpoppy   {Eschncholzia  viexicuna  Greene). 


About  two  arctic  species  crop  out  again  on  high  summits  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

Poppies  are  annual  or  perennial  herbs,  with  more  or  less  nar- 
cotic, milky  sap;  lobed  or  dissected  leaves;  solitary,  long-stalked, 
showy  flowers,  nodding  in  bud  and  of  various  colors,  mostly  red, 
orange,  yellow,  purple,  violet,  or  white,  and  typically  with  2  sepals 
and  4  petals  and  numerous  stamens.  The  stigmas  are  united  into 
a  flattened,  crownlike,  4-  to  20-rayed  structure  persistent  as  a  cap 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN   RANGE  FORBS  215 

on  the  fruit.  The  characteristic  fruiting  capsules  open  by  chinks 
or  pores  under  the  stigmas. 

Papaver  is  the  Latin  word  for  poppy.  The  genus  is  chiefly  known 
for  its  numerous  ornamentals  in  cultivation  and  for  the  opium 
poppy  (P.  somniferum  L.),  whose  capsules  are  the  source  of  mor- 
phine (Ci7Hi.,0,iNHoO)  and  other  derivates  such  as  codein,  lauda- 
num, and  protopine.  The  seeds  of  this  plant  are  also  a  familiar 
condiment  in  rolls  and  other  culinary  products.  Opium  poppy  is 
locally  naturalized  in  many  parts  of  this  country. 

The  best  known  native  species  is  probably  mission  poppy  (Papa- 
ver caUfornicum  A.  Gray),  which  would  be  the  true  California 
poppy  had  not  that  State's  ofl?icial  flower  (Eschscholzia  calif ornica 
Cham.)  usurped  the  name.  Mission  poppy  is  a  slender  annual  herb, 

1  to  2  feet  high,  with  the  petals  about  %  of  an  inch  long,  brick  red 
with  a  green  spot  at  base,  the  fruiting  capsules  about  14  of  an  inch 
long.  It  has  a  spotty  distribution  in  open  woods  at  lower  elevations 
of  the  Coast  Ranges  of  California,  especially  toward  the  south,  and 
may  be  locally  abundant  in  burns  the  year  following  a  fire.  Its 
forage  significance  requires  further  study. 

Creamcups  (Platystemon  calif ornicus  Benth.)  is  an  annual, 
growing  between  elevations  of  about  1,000  and  5,000  feet,  often 
in  sandy  soils,  in  foothills,  plains  and  arroyos  from  Coos  County, 
southwestern  Oregon,  to  northern  Lower  California  and,  inland, 
to  southern  Nevada,  southern  Utah,  and  Arizona.  It  was  originally 
discovered  by  David  Douglas  (of  Douglas-fir  fame).  The  plant  is 
3  to  12  inches  high,  spreading  or  erect,  with  linear,  largely  basal, 
and  somewhat  hairy  leaves. 

The  almost  leafless  flower  stalks  are  2  to  10  inches  high,  each 
v/ith  a  single  flower.  There  are  3  sepals,  6  cream-colored  or  yellow- 
ish petals,  in  two  series,  14  to  nearly  1  inch  long,  withering  but 
more  or  less  persistent  over  the  fruit,  and  numerous  stamens  with 
flattened  and  somewhat  petallike  stalks  (filaments)  from  which  the 
scientific  name  Platystemon  (from  Greek  platy-,  flat,  +  stemon, 
stamen)  derives.  The  peculiar  fruit,  likened  by  some  to  an  ear  of 
corn,  consists  of  6  to  numerous  carpels  or  follicles,  becoming  jointed 
and  beadlike  (moniliform)  when  ripe,  and  adhering  in  a  rounded, 
cylindrical  mass. 

The  plant  has  entered  ornamental  cultivation  and  appears  to 
have  no  forage  value  but,  because  of  its  relationships,  perhaps 
should  be  regarded  as  somewhat  poisonous.  Jepson  (10J^,  v.  1: 
553-557.  1922)  has  an  interesting  discussion  of  the  great  variabil- 
ity of  this  species  which  has  led  some  botanists  to  separate  it  into 
a  great  number  of  species. 

Windpoppy  [^Stylomecon  heterophylla  (Benth.)  G.  Taylor,  syn. 
Papaver  heterophyUum  (Benth.)  Greene]  is  a  slender,  yellow- 
juiced,  erect  annual  herb,  with  pinnately  divided  leaves  having 
divisions  varying  from  narrowly  linear  to  oval.  The  leafy  stems, 
up  to  2  feet  high,  bear  showy,  brick-red  or  apricot-colored  flowers, 

2  inches  or  more  across,  nodding  in  bud,  with  2  sepals  and  4  petals 
with  a  dark  spot  at  the  base,  blooming  April  to  May.  The  plant 
ranges  in  semishaded  woodland  types,  foothills,  dry  valleys,  and 


216  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

meadows  at  rather  low  elevations  from  Lake  County,  California,  to 
Lower  California. 

There  appear  to  be  no  observations  of  domestic  livestock  eating 
this  plant,  which  sometimes  becomes  a  pest  in  grainfields.  The 
scientific  name  Stijlomecon  derives  from  Greek  fivKwr  (poppy)  + 
o-TfAos-  (Pillar  or  post — hence  style),  referring  to  the  distinct 
(though  short  and  slender)  style  which  bears  the  headlike  stigma. 
The  genus  differs  from  the  closely  related  poppy  genus  (Papaver) 
in  that  is  has  yellow  juice,  a  wholly  different  pistil,  and  an  absence 
of  the  poppy  "nightcap"  on  the  fruits,  which  split  open  when  ripe 
by  valves  from  the  top. 

FUMITORY  FAMILY   (FUMARIACEAE) 

This  small  family,  of  annual,  biennial  or  perennial,  mostly  deli- 
cate herbs,  is  represented  in  the  11  Far  Western  States  by  3  genera 
and  19  species.  Some  botanists  prefer  to  regard  it  as  a  subfamily 
of  the  poppy  family,  from  which  it  differs  in  its  usually  more 
watery  and  less  milky  (but  apparently  always  more  or  less  alka- 
loidalj  juices;  alternate  or  basal,  uniformly  dissected,  often  bluish 
leaves;  irregular  flowers  (mostly  in  racemes  or  spikes)  with  2 
small,  often  scalelike  sepals  and  4  more  or  less  united  petals  in  2 
series,  the  2  lower  or  outer  ones  spurred  or  saclike  at  base,  the  2 
smaller  inner  petals  crested  and  united  over  the  stigma ;  stamens 
6  (instead  of  numerous)  in  2  series  of  3  each  opposite  the  larger 
petals  and  the  fruit  usually  a  2-valved,  several-seeded  capsule,  the 
seeds  mostly  black  and  shining. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  species  involved  in  stock  poisoning, 
the  family  has  very  limited  range  significance.  Many  species  have 
attractive  flowers  and  foliage  and  are  cultivated  as  ornamentals. 
The  Old  World  fumitory  (Fumaria  officinalis  L.).  formerly  an  of- 
ficial drug  plant,  has  limitedly  escaped  and  become  naturalized  in 
this  country,  and  occasionally  is  observed  on  western  range  lands. 
Fumaria,  unlike  other  fumariaceous  genera,  has  small  rounded, 
1-seeded,  nutletlike  fruits. 

Corydalis  (Corydalis,  syn.  Cap)wides) 

Depending  on  taxonomic  viewpoint,  there  are  possibly  11  species 
of  this  genus  in  the  Far  West.  Ownbey  (U8),  however,  reduces 
six  of  these  to  subspecific  rank.  Two  other  species  enter  Alaska, 
one  from  eastern  Asia  and  another  from  eastern  North  America ; 
moreover,  several  other  eastern  species  enter  the  fringe  of  the 
range  countrv  in  Texas,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas. 

Corydalis  (from  Greek  KopvSaXXi^,  the  Old  World  crested  or  horned 
lark,  Alauda  cristata — referring  to  the  crested  seeds)  is  conserved 
under  the  International  Code  against  the  pre-Linnean  Capnoides 
(meaning  "smoky"  in  Greek,  alluding  to  the  curious,  snakelike  odor 
of  some  species  and  perhaps  the  smoky  color  of  the  foliage)  of 
Tournefort  and  some  later  authors.  The  genus  contains  annual, 
biennial  or  perennial,  erect,  or  climbing  herbs.  The  yellow,  white, 
pink,  reddish,  or  purplish  flowers  are  borne  in  racemes,  the  four 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  217 

petals  unalike,  the  outer  pair  spurred  at  the  base,  the  inner  pair 
keeled  on  the  back.  The  fruits  are  somewhat  elongated,  linear,  or 
oblong  capsules  with  crested  seeds. 

Some  species  of  Corydalis  appear  to  furnish  a  limited  amount  of 
forage  in  certain  sections,  but  generally  they  are  not  sufficiently 
abundant  or  palatable  to  have  significance.  Moreover,  until  more 
knowledge  is  obtained,  it  may  be  safest  to  regard  them  with  some 
degree  of  suspicion  because  of  the  alkaloids  they  contain.  One 
range  species,  fitweed  corydalis  (C.  caseana  A.  Gray),  is  known  to 
be  a  stock-poisoning  plant.  About  25  Old  World  and  American 
species  are  in  ornamental  cultivation. 

Golden  corydalis  [Corydalis  aurea  Wilkl.,  syn.  Capnoides  aureum 
(Willd.)  Kun'tze]  is  the  most  widespread  and  commonest  of  our 
species,  ranging  from  Quebec  to  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Minnesota, 
Missouri,  Texas,  thence  west  to  Modoc  County,  northern  California, 
and  north,  through  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and  British 
Columbia,  to  Yukon  and  Alaska.  It  is  a  low  and  often  spreading 
winter  annual  or  biennial,  with  a  rather  slender  taproot,  the  stems 
branching  from  the  base,  slender,  3  to  14  inches  long,  the  herbage 
rather  pale,  grayish,  or  bluish. 

The  inflorescence  is  in  loose,  terminal,  short  and  mostly  few- 
flowered  racemes,  the  individual  flower  stalks  (pedicels)  short, 
slender,  and  bent  downwards  in  fruit.  The  flowers  are  golden 
yellow,  about  1/2  inch  (12  to  15  mm.)  long,  their  spurs  typically 
less  than  a  third  the  length  of  the  entire  flower.  The  fruiting  cap- 
sules are  spreading  or  drooping,  about  i/o  to  %  inch  long,  when 
dry,  often  constricted  between  the  seeds  (moniliform),  giving  a 
bead-string  appearance;  the  seeds  are  only  obscurely  net-veined 
(reticidate). 

Golden  corydalis  occurs  in  a  variety  of  sites,  dry  rocky  woods, 
damp  thickets  of  the  ponderosa  pine  and  Douglas-fir  types,  lower 
bunchgrass  and  sagebrush  types,  cinder  soils  overlaying  adobe, 
etc.,  and  frequently  on  limestone  soils.  It  flowers  sometimes 
throughout  the  growing  season,  but  mainly  from  late  March  to 
July.  It  occurs  at  elevations  up  to  about  8,300  feet  in  Montana  and 
10,000  feet  in  Colorado  and  Utah.  The  herbage  has  a  somewhat 
pungent  taste ;  it  is  often  not  touched  by  stock  or,  if  grazed,  the 
palatability  rates  poor  or  at  best  fair.  Spanish-speaking  people 
call  it  "altamisa"  and  often  indicate  that  it  has  medicinal  prop- 
erties. 

Mountain  corydalis  [Corydalis  aurea  ssp.  occidentalis  (Engelm.) 
G.B.  Ownbey,  syns.  C.  montana  Engelm.,  Capnoides  montanum 
(Engelm.)  Britt.],  treated  in  many  of  the  manuals  as  a  distinct 
species,  does  not  greatly  differ  from  the  typical  form  of  the  species. 
It  has  stouter  racemes,  mostly  larger  flowers  with  longer  spurs, 
and  stouter,  more  curving,  erect  or  ascending  fruits ;  the  spurs  are 
nearer  1/0  than  14  of  the  corolla  length,  and  the  sepals  average  0.5 
to  1  mm.,  rather  than  1.5  to  2  mm.  long.  It  has,  however,  an  ex- 
clusively western  range,  from  the  Black  Hills  of  southwestern 
South  Dakota  south,  through  extreme  western  Nebraska,  Kansas 
and  Oklahoma,  to  Texas,  northern  Mexico,  Arizona,  eastern  Ne- 


218     AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

vada,  Utah,  and  southern  Wyoming.  Usually  of  too  limited  occur- 
rence and  abundance  and  of  too  low  palatability  to  have  range 
importance. 

Fitweed  corydalis  or  fitweed  [Corydalis  caseana  A.  Gray,  Syn. 
Capnoides  caseanum  (A.  Gray)  Greene],^*'  typically  confined  to  Cal- 
ifornia, is  perhaps  the  most  important  species  of  the  genus  from 
a  range  standpoint  because  of  its  toxicity.  It  is  a  handsome  plant, 
sometimes  more  than  3  feet  tall,  with  3  to  5  large,  fernlike  stem 
leaves,  the  herbage  bluish  (glaucous).  The  fragrant,  white  cream- 
colored  or  pinkish  flowers,  often  50  in  number,  are  in  thick  lark- 
spurlike and  spikelike  clusters,  the  inner  petals  tipped  with  purple 
or  deep  red.  The  shiny  black  seeds  are  relatively  large  (2.5  mm. 
long)  and  only  faintly  warty  under  a  lens. 

This  species  occurs  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  at  elevations 
mostly  between  about  3,500  and  6,500  feet,  flowering  largely  in 
late  June  to  July.  It  is  eaten  chiefly  by  livestock  in  dry  seasons. 
One  collector  on  a  California  naitonal  forest  reported :  "Seems  to 
be  palatable  to  both  cattle  and  sheep.  Recent  feeding  tests  to  cattle 
and  sheep  at  the  Nevada  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  show 
that  the  plant  is  highly  toxic.  Over  400  sheep  poisoned  on  the  Set- 
tlemeyer  sheep  allotment  on  Emigrant  Creek."  Fleming,  Miller, 
and  Vawter  (7J^)  have  published  a  report  on  the  plant.  The  com- 
mon name  "fitweed"  applies  to  the  convulsions  characteristic  of 
poisoned  animals. 

Ownbey  (1.^8)  recognizes  four  subspecies  of  Corydalis  caseana: 

(1)  Utah  corydalis  [C.  caseana  ssp.  brachycarpa  (Rydb.)  G.  B. 
Omibey,  syns.  C.  brachycarpa  (Rydb.)  Fedde,  Capnoides  brachy- 
carjyinn  Rydb.]  of  northern  Utah,  with  conspicuously  broad  and 
rounded  wing  tips  of  the  upper  petals. 

(2)  Brandegee  corydalis  [C  caseana  spp.  brandegei  (S.  Wats.) 
G.  B.  Ownbey,  syns.  C.  brandegei  S.  Wats.,  Capnoides  brandegei 
(S.  Wats.)  Heller],  a  tall  plant  (sometimes  more  than  5  feet  high) 
of  Colorado  and  northern  New  Mexico,  named  for  its  discoverer, 
a  well-known  civil  engineer  and  botanist  of  California  and 
Colorado. 

(3)  Cusick  corydalis  \_C.  caseana  ssp.  cusickii  (S.  Wats.)  G.  B. 
Ownbey,  syns.  C.  cusickii  S.  Wats.,  Capnoides  cusickii  (S. 
Wats.)  Heller],  named  in  honor  of  its  discoverer,  William  Conklin 
Cusick  (1842-1922),  well-known  botanical  collector  of  eastern 
Oregon.  This  subspecies  has  broad-margined  upper  petal  tips  and 
occurs  in  northeastern  Oregon  and  south  and  central  Idaho. 

(4)  Idaho  corydalis  \_C.  caseana  spp.  hastata  (Rydb.)  G.  B. 
Ownbey,  syns.  C.  hastata  (Rydb.)  Fedde,  Capnoides  hastatnm 
Rydb.],  a  northern  Idaho  subspecies,  growing  up  to  6  feet  tall, 
with  broadly  triangular  leaves  and  much-branched  inflorescence. 
The  economic  status  of  these  four  subspecies  needs  further  study. 

■^''Corydalis  caseana  is  named  after  its  discoverer  and  first  collector,  Eliphalet 
Lewis  Case  (1843-1925).  Case,  a  native  of  Ohio  and  veteran  of  the  Civil  War, 
later  moved  to  California;  he  was  an  ardent  amateur  botanist  and  a  close 
associate  of  the  well-known  California  botanist  John  Gill  Lemmon  {56). 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  219 

In  the  meantime,  it  is  doubtless  safest  to  suspect  them  of  being 
toxic. 

Scouler  corvdalis  [Corydalis  scouleri  Hook.,  syn.  Capnoides 
scouleri  (Hook.)  Kuntze]^"  occurs  on  Vancouver  Island  and  the 
Olympic  Peninsula  of  Washington  south  to  Tillamook  County, 
Greg.,  in  shady  woods  and  other  moist-wet  and  cool  coastal  or  near 
coastal  habitats  from  near  sea  level  to  about  3,500  feet.  It  is  a 
perennial  from  a  thickened,  somewhat  tuberlike  root,  the  stout 
stems,  with  about  3  leaves,  up  to  40  inches  high.  The  compound 
leaves  are  less  finely  dissected  than  those  of  most  corydalises,  the 
ultimate  segments  or  leaflets  being  oblong  or  elliptic,  about  1  inch 
long. 

The  flowers  which,  except  for  the  color,  somewhat  suggest  those 
of  larkspur,  are  in  a  narrow,  rather  loose  raceme,  rose  colored,  or 
pinkish,  the  hood  of  the  spur  petal  crested  but  not  winged  or  re- 
flexed,  the  spur  stout,  straight,  ascending,  i/o  i^^ch  or  more  long — 
much  longer  than  the  body  of  the  petal  itself.  The  stigmas  are 
more  or  less  triangular,  about  as  long  as  broad.  The  fruiting  cap- 
sules are  ^gg  shaped  or  oblong,  about  %  of  an  inch  long,  with 
relatively  large  seeds  (about  %  mm.  in  diameter)  minutely  warty 
under  a  lens.  The  flowering  period  is  from  about  mid-April  to 
early  July.  The  plant  is  handsome  and  is  in  ornamental  cultivation. 
More  data  are  needed  regarding  its  status  as  a  forage  plant.  Until 
more  is  known  about  this,  it  may  be  safest  to  suspect  it  of  being 
toxic. 

Bleedingheart  (Dicentra,  syns.  Bikukulla,  Bicuculla) 

Dicentra'^^  is  a  group  of  smooth,  often  handsome  herbaceous 
plants,  with  watery  juice,  perennial  from  small  tubers,  ricelike 
grains,  or  rootstocks.  The  leaves  are  compound  or  dissected,  basal 
or  alternate  on  the  stems.  The  attractive  flowers,  in  racemes  or 
panicles,  are  often  flattened  and  somewhat  heart  shaped,  with  2 
very  small  sepals  and  4  petals,  the  2  outer  petals  spurred  or  saclike 
at  the  base,  the  2  inner  ones  much  narrower ;  there  are  6  stamens. 
The  fruit  is  an  elongated  2-valved  capsule.  There  are  7  or  8  species 
in  the  Far  Western  States. 

These  plants  are  not  normally  palatable  to  domestic  livestock. 
However,  early  in  the  spring  when  palatable  vegetation  is  scanty 
or  absent  and  the  ground  is  very  moist,  their  more  or  less  poisonous 
roots  are  likely  to  be  pulled  up  and  eaten.  At  least  one  species, 
Dutchmans-breeches,  has  a  record  of  poisoning  livestock.   Accord- 

*"Originally  collected  by  David  Douglas  and  his  companion  Dr.  John  Scouler 
(1804-71)  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River  on  their  first  jouraey  to 
western  North  America;  named  for  the  latter  by  the  eminent  British  botanist 
William  Jackson  Hooker  (1785-1865). 

*^Dienira  Bernh.  (1833)  is  conserved  over  Bikukulla  Adans.  (1763)  under 
the  International  Code.  The  generic  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  prefix 
8t-,  two,  +  KevTpov,  sharp  point,  peg  or  spur,  referring  to  the  two  spurs  of 
the  outer  petals.  The  synonymous  name  Bikukulla,  often  written  in  the  Latin- 
ized form  Bicuculla,  has  a  similar  significance,  being  based  on  the  Latin  prefix 
bi-,  two  -f  cucnlhis,  hood.  Actually  Bicuculla  Borckh.  (1797)  is  a  synonym 
of  the  conserved  name  Adlumia  Raf.  (1808)  of  this  same  family. 


220    AGRICULTURE   HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

ing  to  Youngken  (216)  the  rootstocks  of  squirrelcorn  [Dicentra 
canadensis  (Goldie)  Walp.,  syn.  Bikiikulla  canadensis  (Goldie) 
Millsp.],  a  northeastern  species  with  heart-shaped,  round-spurred 
flowers,  have  been  used  in  medicine  as  an  emetic  and  stimulant, 
A  number  of  the  species  are  cultivated  as  ornamentals,  especially 
the  common  bleed  in  gheart  [D.  spectabilis  Lem.]. 

Gold-eardrops  [Dicentra  chrysantha  (Hook.  &  Arn.)  Walp.,  syn. 
Bikukulla  chnjsantha  (Hook.  &  Arn.)  Coville]  is  found  on  dry 
gravelly  hillsides,  chaparral  and  chamise  types,  arroyos,  burned- 
over  brush  fields,  and  the  like,  from  Lake  County,  California,  to 
northern  Baja  California,  mostly  in  the  Coast  Ranges,  and  between 
elevations  of  1,000  and  5,000  feet.  It  is  a  pale,  bluish  (glaucous), 
leafy-stemmed  perennial,  2  to  5  feet  high,  from  a  thickened  root. 
The  finely  compound  leaves  have  rather  sharp-tipped  ultimate 
segments.  The  golden  or  sulfur-yellow  flowers,  with  an  unpleasant 
odor,  are  about  %  of  an  inch  long,  in  a  rather  loose,  erect,  narrow, 
elongated  panicle.  The  plant  is  in  flower  from  about  late  April  to 
early  July  and  in  mature  fruit  in  August  and  September.  More 
data  are  needed  regarding  its  forage  significance  (if  any).  It  is 
in  ornamental  cultivation. 

Dutchmans-breeches  [Dicentra  cucullaria  (L.)  Bernh.,  syn.  Bi- 
kukulla cucullaria  (L.)  Millsp.]  (fig.  47)  occurs  from  eastern 
Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia  south  to  North  Carolina  and  Alabama,  and 
west  to  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Minnesota. 
Dutchmans-breeches  is  often  called  "little  staggerweed" ;  other 
common  names  include  "little  boy's  breeches,"  "white  hearts,"  etc. 
The  plant  usually  grows  in  rich  moist  woods,  often  near  running 
water,  and  mostly  as  scattered  specimens  but  sometimes  in  abun- 
dance. It  ranges  from  elevations  near  sea  level  to  4,500  feet. 

Dutchmans-breeches  is  an  attractive,  smooth,  delicate  plant  per- 
ennial from  a  kind  of  scaly  fleshy  bulb  composed  of  the  triangular 
persistent  bases  of  former  leaves  and  small  granular  bulblets  the 
size  of  rice  grains.  The  finely  dissected  leaves  are  basal,  divided 
into  three  main  divisions  (ternately  decompound),  the  ultimate 
segments  fine,  linear  or  of  a  lance-shaped  type,  usually  with  a  bluish 
(glaucous)  cast.  The  naked  flower  stalk  is  5  to  12  inches  high,  with 
an  often  1-sided  raceme  of  white  or  whitish,  sometimes  faintly  pink 
(or  tinted  at  the  top  with  yellow  or  cream  color)  flowers,  i/o  to  % 
of  an  inch  long,  the  2  outer  petals  spurred  and  the  2  inner  petals 
with  small  crests.  The  fruit  is  a  1-celled,  spindle-shaped  capsule 
opening  to  the  base  by  2  valves,  containing  10  to  20  crested  seeds. 

As  a  rule  the  plant  is  too  sparse  a  constituent  of  the  range  forage 
crop  to  be  of  any  importance.  However,  it  is  one  of  the  earliest 
plants  to  appear.  Because  sheep  sometimes  seem  to  relish  it  in  the 
spring,  they  should  be  closely  watched  where  it  is  abundant.  The 
plant  contains  at  least  three  alkaloids,  one  of  which  is  protopine 
(71).  Protopine  (Ci..oHi!,NO.-,),  a  white  crystalline  powder  insoluble 
in  water,  is  a  constituent  of  opium  and  there  seems  to  be  little,  if 
anything,  on  record  as  to  its  precise  physiological  action. 

Eggleston  (63)  found  the  plant  to  be  poisonous  to  cattle  in  the 
mountains  of  southwestern  Virginia  and  states  that  "most  of  the 


iNOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


221 


F-480396 

Figure  47.  — Dutchmans- 
breeches  [Diceritya  cuciil- 
laria  (L.)  Bernh.].  An  at- 
tractive ornamental  peren- 
nial herb  of  the  fumitory- 
family.  Widely  distributed 
in  the  United  States.  Poi- 
sonous to  domestic  livestock. 


poison  seems  to  be  in  the  bulbs  which  are  commonly  lifted  with  the 
foliag-e  by  cattle  but  left  in  the  ground  by  nibbling  sheep."  Young- 
ken  (216)  mentions  that  the  tubers  of  both  Dicentra  canadensis 
and  D.  cucullaria  contain  the  alkaloids  corydaline  and  bulbocap- 
nine  as  well  as  f  umaric  acid  and  have  been  used  medicinally  as  an 
alterative,  diuretic,  and  bitter  tonic.  Black,  Eggleston,  et  al.  (2J^) 
rate  Dutchmans-Breeches  as  "normally  unpalatable"  but  still 
highly  poisonous." 


222    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  Ifil,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

In  the  Far  West,  in  Washing-ton,  Oregon,  and  western  Idaho, 
occurs  the  so-called  Dicentra  cucullaria  var.  occidentalis   (Rydb.) 

Peck  [syns.  BikukuUa  occideritalis  Rydb.,  D.  occidentalis  (Rydb.) 
Fedde],  perhaps  especially  typical  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains 
of  the  Columbia  River  basin  and  of  the  Blue  Mountains  region. 
Despite  the  geographical  gap  between  the  typical  form  and  the 
variety,  they  appear  to  intergrade.  The  var.  occidentalis  typically  is 
reported  to  have  somewhat  less  finely  dissected  leaves ;  the  flower 
spurs  somewhat  larger  and  more  spreading,  and  the  crest  on 
the  inner  petals  rather  more  prominent ;  the  rootstock  very  short, 
not  scaly,  and  the  rice-grain  little  tubers  perhaps  more  numerous. 

Pacific  bleedingheart  {Dicentra  formosa  (Andr.)  DC,  syn.  Bi- 
kukulla  formosa  (Andr.)  Coville]  occurs  in  the  Coast  Ranges  and 
Cascades,  from  British  (i^olumbia  to  Oregon  and  south,  both  along 
the  coast  and  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  to  California.  The 
species  is  very  closely  related  to  fringed  bleedingheart  [D.  exima 
(Ker)  Torrey]  of  the  eastern  Allegheny  and  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains. It  is  a  smooth  perennial  herb  from  thickish,  creeping  root- 
stocks,  the  practically  naked  flower  stalks  6  to  20  inches  high — 
surpassing  the  leaves. 

The  leaves,  basal  or  nearly  so,  are  compoundly  dissected  (twice 
or  thrice  ternate),  somewhat  suggesting  those  of  a  ligusticum,  with 
a  bluish  bloom  (glaucous) ,  6  inches  or  more  broad,  the  ultimate 
segments  mostly  oblong  and  pinnatifid.  The  rose-colored  or  pink 
flowers  are  in  terminal  panicles,  heart  shaped  as  in  the  commonly 
cultivated  bleeding  heart  of  Japan  (Dicentra  spectabilis  Lem.)  the 
4  petals  united  to  above  the  middle,  the  2  inner  petals  larger  and 
with  short  spreading  tips.  The  species  is  illustrated  in  Jepson's 
and  Abrams'  floras  (10^,  2). 

Pacific  bleedingheart  occurs  in  moist  woods,  especially  along 
streams,  between  elevations  of  about  1,000  and  8,500  feet,  mostly 
in  rich  loams  but  sometimes  in  granitic  washes,  serpentine  clays, 
etc.  Under  Douglas-fir  and  other  dense  stands,  it  tends  to  have  a 
slim  form.  The  flowering  period  varies  from  early  May  to  August 
or  even  early  September,  depending  on  altitude,  latitude,  slope, 
and  seasonal  climatic  conditions.  The  plant's  distribution  is 
rather  wide  but  the  abundance  is  mostly  scattering  and  local.  In 
most  places  the  species  is  regarded  as  unimportant  or  worthless  as 
a  range  livestock  forage.  It  has  been  reported  that  on  the  Olympic 
National  Forest  (Washington)  "elk  are  very  fond  of  this  plant." 

There  appears  to  be  no  record  of  Pacific  bleedingheart  poison- 
ing domestic  livestock.  However,  Black,  Eggleston,  and  Kelly  (25) 
report  that  it  contains  protopine  and  is  potentially  harmful;  in 
experimental  work  with  mice,  respiratory  paralysis  and  death  re- 
sulted. Pacific  bleedingheart  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  an  orna- 
mental ;  in  fact  the  original  description  of  the  plant  by  Andrews 
was  based  on  cultivated  specimens  grown  in  England  in  1797.  The 
species  is  more  or  less  medicinal.  Schneider  (180)  states  of  it: 
"Said  to  be  tonic,  diuretic  and  alterative ;  extensively  used  by  the 
eclectics." 

While  too  small  and  evanescent  to  have  any  practical  importance. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  223 

steershead  \_Dicentra  uniflora  Kellogg,  syn.  Bikiikidla  imifiora 
(Kell.)  Howell]  perhaps  is  worthy  of  mention  because  of  its  rather 
wide  distribution,  commonness,  and  unique  appearance.  It  is 
found  an  open  sites  in  the  mountains,  varying  from  dry  to  moist, 
in  deep  soils  and  also  in  shallow,  gravelly,  or  scabby  areas,  largely 
in  aspen,  spruce  and  weed  types,  from  Washington  and  Idaho  to 
Wyoming,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  California.  It  is  a  stemless  {acaules- 
cent)  perennial  from  a  cluster  of  thickened,  spindle-shaped  roots ; 
offsets  or  runners  frequently  develop  from  these  roots,  bearing 
starchy,  spindle-shaped  tubers. 

The  leaves  are  all  basal,  about  3  or  4  inches  long,  slightly  and 
minutely  hairy,  twice  or  thrice  divided  into  3's,  with  oblong  ulti- 
mate segments.  The  naked  flower  stalks,  about  4  inches  long  or 
less,  bear  a  solitary,  flesh-colored  or  pink  flower  about  %  of  an  inch 
long,  the  2  outer  petals  strongly  recurved,  giving  the  characteristic 
steershead  appearance.  The  flowering  period  is  mostly  from  April 
to  June  but  occasionally  may  extend  into  August.  The  flowers  last 
only  a  day  or  two  and,  with  species  of  Claytonia  and  Orogenia,  are 
among  the  earliest  to  appear  on  the  range.  Because  the  plant,  if 
not  in  bloom,  is  so  easily  overlooked,  the  species  is  probably  com- 
moner than  is  ordinarily  supposed. 


224    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

LITERATURE  CITED 

(1)  Anonymous. 

1916.  military  use  of  sabadilla  in  the  manufacture  of  tear- 

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(2)  Abrams,  Leroy. 

1923-1951.     illustrated  flora  of  the   pacific   states   WASHINGTON, 

OREGON,  AND   CALIFORNIA,    3   V.   Stanford   University, 
Calif. 

(3)  Aldous,  a,  E, 

1917,  eradicating  tall  larkspur  on  cattle  ranges  in  the  na- 

TIONAL FORESTS.    U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  BuL  826,  23  pp., 
illus. 

(4)  Anderson,  J,  R. 

1925.  trees  AND  SHRUBS,  FOOD,  MEDICINAL,  AND  POISONOUS  PLANTS  OF 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA.   165  pp.,  illus.   Victoria,  B,  C, 

(5)  Andrews,  Henry  N.,  Jr, 

1947.  ancient  plants  and  the  world  they  lived  in,  279  pp,,  illus. 

Ithaca,  N,  Y, 

(6)  Applegate,  Elmer  Ivan, 

1935,  THE  GENUS  ERYTHRONIUM  :  A  TAXONOMIC  AND  DISRTIBUTIONAL 
STUDY  OF  THE  WESTERN  NORTH  AMERICAN  SPECIES.     Madroiio 

3:  58-113, 

(7)  Ares,  Fred  N. 

1941,     CATTLE     LOSSES     REDUCED     BY     GRUBBING     POISONOUS     DRYMARIA. 

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(8)  Bailey,  L,H. 

1935,     THE   STANDARD   CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HORTICULTURE,     3   V.   illus.     New 

York. 

(9)   

1939.    THE  GARDEN  OF  LARKSPURS.   116  pp.,  iUus.   New  York. 

(10)  AND  Bailey,  Ethel  Zoe. 

1941.    HORTUS  SECOND.   778  pp.   New  York. 

(11)  Bailey,  Vernon. 

1923.     SOURCES  OF   WATER  SUPPLY   FOR  DESERT  ANIMALS.     Sci.    Monthly 

17  (1):  66-86,  illus. 

(12)  Beath,  0.  A, 

1917,    REGARDING  LARKSPUR  POISONING,   Natl,  Wool  Grower  7  (5)  :  52, 

(13)   

1919.    POISONOUS  PLANTS.   Soc.  Prom.  Agr,  Sci,  Proc,  1919, 

(14)   

1926,  EXTRACTS  OF  ACONiTUM  COLUMBIANUM,    Amer,  Pharm,  Assoc, 

Jour,  15:  265-266, 

(15)  Draize,  J.  H.,  AND  Gilbert,  C.  S. 

1934.  PLANTS  POISONOUS  TO  LIVESTOCK.    Wyo.   Agr,   Expt.   Sta,   Bui. 

200,  84  pp.,  illus. 

(16)  Bell,  Willis  H.,  and  Castetter,  Edward  F, 

1941,  the  utilization  of  yucca,  sotol  and  beargrass  by  the 
aborigines  in  the  AMERICAN  SOUTHWEST,  N.  Mex.  Univ. 
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(17)  Bennion,  D. 

1935.  ever  eat  sego  lily  roots?   Deseret  News,  sect.  3,  pt.  v. 

(18)  Benson,  Lyman. 

1942-43.  north  American  ranunculi.  Torrey  Bot.  Club.  Bui.  (I) 
68:  157-172,  (II)  68:  477-490,  (III)  68:  640-659,  (IV) 
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(19)   

1948.  A  TREATISE  ON   THE   NORTH   AMERICAN   RANUNCULI.     Amer.   Mid- 

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(20)    

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NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  225 

(21)  Bentley,  H.  L. 

1898.  A  REPORT  UPON   THE  GRASSES  AND  FORAGE   PLANTS   OF   CENTRAL 

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1925.     SALTBUSHES    AND    THEIR    ALLIES    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.      U.S. 

Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  1345,  40  pp.,  illus. 

(23)  Bishop,  Frank. 

1949.    THE  delphinium  ;  A  FLOWER  MONOGRAPH.  144  pp.,  iUus.  London. 

(24)  Black,  O.  F.,  Eggleston,  W.  W.,  Kelly,  J.  W.,  and  Turner,  H.  C. 

1923.    poisonous  properties  of  bikukulla  cucullaria  (dutchman's- 

BREECHES)    AND  B.   CANADENSIS    ( SQUIRREL-CORN )  .   Jour.   Agr. 

Res.  23 :  69-78,  illus. 

(25)  Eggleston,  W.  W.,  and  Kelly,  J.  W. 

1930.     TOXICITY   OF    BIKUKULLA    FORMOSA     (WESTERN    BLEEDINGHEART)  . 

Jour.  Agr.  Res.  40:  917-920,  illus. 

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1956.    FROELICHIA  GRACILIS  IN  MARYLAND.   Rhodora  58:  35-38. 

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1905.  NATIVE  ECONOMIC  PLANTS  OF  MONTANA.     Mont.  Agr.  Expt.   Sta. 

Bui.  56,  38  pp. 

(28)  Blyth,  Alexander  Wynter,  and  Blyth,  Meredith  Wynter. 

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1951.     HALOGETON — UNWANTED  TENANT  OF  THE  WEST.  Wyo.  Agr.  Expt. 

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(30)  Brandegee,  Townsend  S. 

1891.   drymaria  in  baja  california.  zoe  2:  68-70. 

(31)  Brewer,  W.  H.,  Watson,  Sereno,  and  Gray,  Asa. 

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1886.  hookera  v.  brodiaea:  with  some  remarks  on  nomenclature. 
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1941.     CYTOLOGICAL  AND  TAXONOMIC   STUDIES   IN   THE   GENUS   BRODIAEA. 

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1907.    PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  ECOLOGY.   315  pp.,  iUus.   New  York. 

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364,  44  pp.,  illus. 

(44)  Core,  Earl  L. 

1940.    travels  of  ASA  GRAY  IN  WESTERN  VIRGINIA,  1843.    Rhodora  42: 
344-351,  illus. 

(45)  Cornelius,  Donald  R.,  and  Graham,  Charles  A. 

1953.    chemical  control  of  buttercup  on  mountain  meadows.  Jour. 
Forestry  51:  631-634,  illus. 

(46)  AND  Talbot,  M.  R. 

1955.     RANGELAND  IMPROVEMENT  THROUGH  SEEDING  AND  WEED  CONTROL 
ON    EAST    SLOPE    SIERRA    NEVADA    AND    ON    SOUTHERN    CASCADE 

MOUNTAINS,    U.S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Agr.  Handb.  88,  51  pp.,  illus. 

(47)  CoviLLE,  Frederick  V. 

1897.     NOTES    ON    THE    PLANTS    USED    BY    THE    KLAMATH    INDIANS    OF 

OREGON.   U.S.  Natl.  Herbarium  Contrib.  5  (2)  :  87-108. 

(48)  Dalla  Torre,  C.  G.  de,  and  Harms,  H. 

1900-1907.    genera    siphonogamarum    ad    systema    englerianum 
CONSCRIPTA.    921  pp.    Leipzig. 

(49)  Darlington,  H.  T. 

1915.     A    STUDY    OF    GRAZING    CONDITIONS    IN    THE    WENAHA    NATIONAL 

forest.  Wash,  state  Col.  Bui.  122,  18  pp.,  illus. 

(50)  Davis,  Ray  J. 

1952.    FLORA  OF  IDAHO.   828  pp.    Dubuque,  Iowa. 

(51)  Dayton,  William  Adams. 

1924.    flowers  OF  the  high  places.  Amer.  Forests  and  Forest  Life. 
Pt.  I:  30  (368)  :  486-489,  501,  illus.   Pt.  II:  30  (369)  :  548- 
551,  564,  illus. 
(52) 

(53) 

(54) 

(55) 

(56) 


1927.    a  few  NOTES  ON  PLANT  NAMES.    Biol.   Soc.  Wash.   Proc.   40: 
117-118. 


1930.     SODIUM    chlorate    AS    PLANT    POISON    ENDANGERS     MORE    THAN 

PLANTS.   U.S.  Forest  Serv.  Forest  Worker  6  (1)  :  17. 


1931.     IMPORTANT    WESTERN    BROWSE    PLANTS.     U.S.    Dept.    Agr.    MisC. 

Pub.  101,  214  pp.,  illus. 


1951.     HISTORICAL     SKETCH     OF     BARILLA     (HALOGETON     GLOMERATUS)  . 

Jour.  Range  Mangt.  4:  375-381,  illus. 


1957.     ANENT   CORYDALIS   CASEANA  AND  ELIPHALET  LEWIS   CASE    (1843- 

1925).   Leaflets.  West.  Hot.  8  (7)  :  170-174. 

(57)  Degener,  Otto. 

1932-40.    FLORA  HAWAiiENSis.  4  V.,  illus.  Honolulu. 

(58)  Dewey,  L.H. 

1893.     the  RUSSIAN  THISTLE  AND  OTHER  TROUBLESOME  WEEDS  IN   THE 
WHEAT  REGION  OF  MINNESOTA  AND  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  10,  16  pp.,  illus. 

(59)  Dickson,  T.G. 

1946.     notes  on  THE  EFFECT  OF  DRYMARIA  CORDATA  ON   A   TEA  ESTATE 

IN  UVA,  CEYLON.   Tea  Quart.  18  (3)  :  84-90. 

(60)  Dickson,  W.F. 

1932.  FEEDS  FOR  WINTERING  CATTLE.    Mont.  Agr.  Expt.   Sta.  Anim. 

Husb.  Cir.  15:  30-38.   [Processed.] 

(61)  Dominion  Agriculture  Credit  Co.,  Limited. 

1933.  RUSSIAN  THISTLE:  ITS  USE  AND  CONTROL.  19  pp.  Regina,  Sask. 

(62)  Eastwood,  Alice. 

1944.     the  BOTANICAL  COLLECTIONS  OF  CHAMISSO  AND  ESCHSCHOLTZ  IN 

CALIFORNIA.  Leaflets  West.  Bot.  4  (2)  :  17-21. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  227 

(63)  Eggleston,  W.  W. 

1921.  [remarks  by]  In  THE  [torrey  BOTANICAL]  CLUB  PROC.  Torreya 
21:   105. 

(64)  Ernst,  A.  M. 

1954.  SMILAX  ROOTS  AND  URAEMIA.  Eighth  Pac.  Sci.  Cong.  Proc,  Pac. 
Sci.  Assoc.  1953,  Vol.  IVA,  Botany,  Symp.  Med.  Plants,  208 
pp.,  illus.   Phil.  Nat.  Res.  Council,  Quezon  City,  Philippines. 

(65)  EwAN,  Joseph. 

1945.     A   SYNOPSIS   OF   THE   NORTH    AMERICAN    SPECIES   OF  DELPHINIUM. 

Colo.  Univ.  Studies,  Ser.  D,  Phys.  Biolog.  Sci.  2  (2)  :  55-244, 
illus. 

(67) 


1950.    ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  NATURALISTS.    358  pp.,  illus.    Denver. 


1951.  THE  GENUS  DELPHINIUM  IN  NORTH  AMERICA;  SUPPLEMENTARY 
NOTES    AND    DISTRIBUTION    RECORDS.      Torrey    Bot.     Club    Bul. 

75:  376-381. 

(68)  Feldberg,  W. 

1950.     the   MECHANISM  OF  THE  STING  OF  THE  COMMON  NETTLE.     Brit. 

Sci.  News  3  (27)  :  75-77,  illus. 

(69)  Fernald,  Merritt  Lyndon. 

1950.  gray's  manual  of  botany.  Ed.  8,  (centennial)  1,632  pp.,  illus. 
New  York  [etc.]. 

(70)  and  Kinsey,  Alfred  Charles. 

1943.  edible  wild  plants  of  eastern  north  AMERICA.  452  pp.,  illus. 
New  York. 

(71)  Fischer,  R.,  and  Soell,  0.  A. 

1902.    Pharm.  Arch.  5  (7)  :  121-124. 

(72)  Fleming,  C.  E. 

1918.  range    plants    poisonous    to    sheep    and    cattle    in    NEVADA. 

Nev.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bul.  95,  51  pp.,  illus. 

(73)  Miller,  M.  R.,  and  Vawter,  L.  R. 

1923.  the  low  larkspur  (delphinium  andersoni)  a  plant  of  the 
spring  range,  poisonous  to  cattle.  Nev.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta. 
Bul.  105,  22  pp.,  illus. 

(74)  Miller,  M.  R.,  and  Vawter,  L.  R. 

1931.    THE  fitweed  (capnoides  caseana)  a  poisonous  range  plant 

OP    THE    northern    SIERRA    NEVADA    MOUNTAINS.     NeV.    Agr. 

Expt.  sta.  Bul.  121,  29  pp.,  illus. 

(75)  Forsling,  C.  L.,  and  Dayton,  W.  A. 

1931.  ARTIFICIAL    RESEEDING    ON    WESTERN    MOUNTAIN    RANGE    LANDS. 

U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Cir.  178,  48  pp.,  illus. 

(76)  Gabrielson,  Ira  N. 

1932.  WESTERN  AMERICAN  ALPINES.  271  pp.,  illus.  New  York. 

(77)  Gail,  Floyd  W.,  and  Hahner,  A.  R. 

1916.     SOME   POISONOUS   PLANTS   OF  IDAHO;    SOME   SUGGESTED  REMEDIES. 

Idaho  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bul.  86,  16  pp.,  illus. 

(78)  Geyer,  Charles  A. 

1845-46.     NOTES  ON  the  VEGETATION  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE 
MISSOURI    AND    OREGON    TERRITORIES    .    .    .    1843    AND    1844. 

London  Jour.  Bot.  4:  479-92,  653-62;  5:  22-41,  198-208, 
285-310,  509-24.  [The  catalog  was  continued  by  Sir  W.  J. 
Hooker  in  ibid  6:  65-79,  206-256,  and  in  Hooker's  Jour. 
Bot.  3:  287-300;  5:  257-265;  7:  371-378;  8:  16-19.] 

(79)  Gilbert,  C.  S.,  Eppson,  H.  F.,  Bradley,  W.  B.,  and  Beath,  0.  A. 

1946.     NITRATE    accumulation     IN     CULTIVATED    PLANTS     AND     WEEDS. 

Wyo,  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bul.  277,  39  pp. 

(80)  GiLMORE,  M.  R. 

1919.  USES  OF  PLANTS  BY  THE  INDIANS  OF  THE  MISSOURI  RIVER  REGION. 

U.S.  Bur.  Amer.  Ethnol.  Rpt.  (1911-12)  33:  45-154,  illus. 


228  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

(81)  Gleason,  Henry  A. 

1952.     THE     NEW     BRITTON     AND     BROWN     ILLUSTRATED     FLORA     OF     THE 
NORTHEASTERN    UNITED   STATES   AND   ADJACENT   CANADA.     3    V. 

New  York. 

(82)  Glover,  Geo.  H.,  and  Robbins,  W.  W. 

1915.     COLORADO    plants    INJURIOUS    TO    LIVESTOCK.     Colo.    Agr.    Expt. 

Sta.  Bui.  211,  74  pp.,  illus. 

(83)  Gorman,  M.  V. 

1896.    ECONOMIC  BOTANY  OF  southeastern  ALASKA.  Pittonia  3 :  64-85. 

(84)  Greene,  Edward  L. 

1890.    THE  CALIFORNIA  PAEONIAS.  Card,  and  Forest  3:  356. 

(85)  Griffiths,  David. 

1904.    RANGE  investigations  IN  ARIZONA.   U.S.  Bur.  Plant  Indus.  Bui. 
67,  62  pp.,  illus. 

(86)   

1910.    A  protected  STOCK  RANGE  IN  ARIZONA.    U.S.  Bur,  Plant  Indus. 
Bui.  177,  28  pp.,  illus. 

(87)  Grosvenor,  G.  H. 

1917.     our    state    FLOWERS.    THE    FLORAL    EMBLEMS    CHOSEN     BY    THE 

commonwealths.    Natl.  Geog.  Mag.  31   (6)  :  481-517,  illus. 

(88)  Hall,  H.  M.,  and  Yates,  H.  S. 

1915.    stock  poisoning  plants  of  CALIFORNIA.   Calif.  Agr.  Expt,  Sta. 
Bui.  249:  [219]-247,  illus. 

(89)  Hanzlik,  p.  J.,  AND  Eds,  F.  de. 

1927.     PHARMACOLOGY   OF   VERATRUM    CALIFORNICUM.     Soc.    Expt.    Biol. 

Med.  Proc.  24:  557-558. 

(90)  Harrington,  H.  D. 

1954.    MANUAL  OF  THE  PLANTS  OF  COLORADO.   666  pp.,  iUus.   Denver. 

(91)  Havard,  V. 

1895.     FOOD    plants    of   THE    NORTH    AMERICAN    INDIANS.     Torrey    Bot. 

Club  Bui.  22:  98-123. 

(92)  Heller,  A.  A. 

1910.    the  first  SPRING  FLOWER.   Muhlenbergia  6  (1)  :  5-11. 

( 93 )  Hen  kel,  Alice. 

1907.    AMERICAN  ROOT  DRUGS.  U.  S.  Bur.  Plant  Indus.  Bui.  107,  80  pp., 
illus. 

(94)  Heyl,  F,  W.,  Loy,  S.  K.,  Knight,  H.  G.,  and  Prien,  0.  L. 

1912.     THE  chemical  EXAMINATION  OF  DEATHCAMAS.    Wyo.  Agr.  Expt. 

Sta.  Bui.  94,  31  pp.,  illus. 

(95)  Hilgard,  E.W. 

1894.    THE  CANAIGRE  OR  TANNERS  DOCK.    Calif.  Agr.  Expt.   Sta.  Bui. 
105  (1):  1-9. 

(96)  Hill,  Albert  F. 

1937.    ECONOMIC  BOTANY.   592  pp.,  illus.   New  York  and  London. 

(97)  Hitchcock,  C.  Leo,  and  Maguire,  Bassett. 

1947.     A  revision  of  the  north  AMERICAN   SPECIES  OF  SILENE.     Wash. 

Univ.  Biol.  Pub.  13:  1-73. 

(98)  Hoover,  Robert  F, 

1939.    A  definition  of  the  genus  brodiaea.    Torrey  Bot.  Club  Bui. 
66:   161-166. 

(99)   

1941.    A  SYSTEMATIC  STUDY  OF  TRiTELEiA.  Amer.  Midland  Nat.  25  (1)  : 
73-100. 

(100)  Hough,  Walter. 

1898.     ENVIRONMENTAL  INTERRELATIONS  IN   ARIZONA.     Amer.   Anthrop. 

11:   133-155. 

(101)  HuLTEN,  Eric,  and  St.  John,  Harold. 

1931.    THE  AMERICAN  SPECIES  OF  LYSICHITUM.   Svensk  Bot.  Tidskr.  25 
(4)  :   453-464,  illus. 

(102)    

1941-50.  FLORA  OF  ALASKA  AND  YUKON.  1902  pp.,  illus.  Lunds  Univ. 
Arsskr.  N.  F.  Avd.  2,  37  (1)  -  45  (1);  Kungl.  Sallsk. 
Handl.  N.  F.  52  (1)  -  60  (1).   Lund,  Sweden. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  229 

(103)  Ingram,  Douglas  C. 

1931.  vegetative  changes  and  grazing  use  on  douglas  fir  cut-over 

LAND.   Jour.  Agr.  Res.  43:  387-417,  illus. 

(104)  Jepson,  Willis  Linn. 

1909-43.    A  FLORA  OF  CALIFORNIA.   3  V.,  iUus.   Berkeley,  Calif. 

(105)   

1911.     A  FLORA   OF   WESTERN    MIDDLE   CALIFORNIA.     Ed.   2,    515   pp.     San 

Francisco. 

(106)   

1929.    JOHANN  FRIEDRICH  ESCHSCHOLTZ.   Madrofio  1 :  253. 

(107)  Johnson,  Laurence. 

1884.   a  manual  of  the  medical  botany  of  north  america.  292  pp., 
illus.   New  York. 

(108)  Jones,  Marcus  E. 

1893.     CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  WESTERN  BOTANY.    No.  4.    Zoe  4    (1)  :   22-54, 

illus. 

(109)  Kearney,  Thomas  H.,  and  Peebles,  Robert  H. 

1942.     FLOWERING    PLANTS    AND    FERNS    OF    ARIZONA.     U.S.    Dept.    Agr. 

Misc.  Pub.  423,  1069  pp.,  illus. 

(110)   

1951.  ARIZONA  FLORA.    1032  pp.,  illus.    Berkeley  and  Los  Angeles. 

(111)  Kelsey,  Harlan  P.,  and  Dayton,  William  A. 

1942.    standardized  plant  names.    Ed.  2.    675  pp.    Harrisburg,  Pa. 

(112)  Kennedy,  P.  Beveridge,  and  Doten,  Samuel  B. 

1901.     A    preliminary    report    on    the    summer    ranges    of    WESTERN 

NEVADA  sheep.   Nev.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  51,  57  pp.,  illus. 

(113)   

1927.     AN    ALKALI    FORAGE    WEED BASSIA    HYSSOPIFOLIA.      Amer.     SoC. 

Agron.  Jour.  19:  750-752,  illus. 

(114)  LAN  JOUW,  J.,  ET  AL. 

1952.  INTERNATIONAL    CODE    OF    BOTANICAL    NOMENCLATURE.      228    pp. 

Utrecht,  Netherlands. 

(115)  Lantow,  J.  L. 

1929.     THE   POISONING   OF   LIVESTOCK    BY   DRYMARIA   PACHYPHYLLA.     N. 

Mex.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  173,  13  pp.,  illus. 

(116)  Lawrence,  William  E. 

1922.     THE  PRINCIPAL  STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS  IN  OREGON.    Oreg.  Agr. 

Expt.  sta.  Bui.  187,  42  pp.,  illus. 

(117)  Leeming,  John  FisHwicK. 

1932.  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  DELHINIUM.   76  pp.,  illus.   London. 

(118)  Leiberg,  John  B. 

1897.     GENERAL  REPORT  ON  A  BOTANICAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  COEUR  D'ALENE 
MOUNTAINS  IN  IDAHO  DURING  THE  SUMMER  OF  1895.  U.S.  Natl. 

Herbarium  Contrib.  5(1);  1-86,  illus. 

(119)  Little,  Elbert  L.,  Jr. 

1936.  POISONOUS  DRYMARiAS.    Western  Live  Stock  21    (9-10)  :   1,  4, 

illus. 

(120)   

1937.  A    STUDY    OF    POISONOUS    DRYMARIA    ON    SOUTHERN    NEW    MEXICO 

RANGES.    Ecology  18:  416-426. 

(121)   

1953.  CHECK  LIST  OF  NATIVE  AND  NATURALIZED  TREES  OF  THE   UNITED 

STATES  (INCLUDING  ALASKA).   U.S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Agr.  Handb. 
41,  472  pp. 

(122)  liLANO,  George  A. 

1948.    economic  uses  of  LICHENS.   Econ.  Bot.  2  (1)  :  15-45,  illus. 

(123)  Long,  Harold  C. 

1917.    plants  POISONOUS  to  LIVE  STOCK.    119  pp.,  illus.    Cambridge, 
England. 

(124)  LOY,  S.  K.,  Heyl,  F.  W.,  and  Hepner,  F.  E. 

1913.     THE    CRYSTALLIN    ALKALOID    OF    ZIGADENUS    INTERMEDIUS.     Wyo. 

Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  101:  [89]  -  98,  illus. 


230    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 
(125)   Lyons,  A.  B. 

1907.     PLANT    NAMES    SCIENTIFIC    AND    POPULAR    *    *    *    Ed.    2,    (i.30    pp. 

Detroit. 
(12(5)    McLaughlin,  Alvah  R. 

1931.     responses  Of  SHEEP  TO  ZYGADENUS  GRAMINEUS,  "DEATHCAMAS." 

Science  73  (1883)  :  135-136. 

(127)  McNair,J.  B. 

1934.     THE  EVOLUTIONARY  STATUS  OF  PLANT   FAMILIES  IN   RELATION   TO 

SOME  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES.  Aitier.  Jour.  Bot.  21:  427-452, 
illus. 

(128)  Mann,  J.  M. 

1914.  CATTLE  KILLED  BY  AN  UNKNOWN  POISON.    Col.  Courier   (State 

College,  N.  Mex.)  2  (12)  :  1,  4.  [The  plant  referred  to  as 
"Drymana  glauca  W.  &  S."  is  clearly  a  slip  for  D.  pachy- 
phylla  Wool.  &  Standi.] 

(129)  Marsh,  C.  D [WIGHT]. 

1929.     STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS  OF  THE  RANGE.     U.S.    Dept.   Agr.    Bul. 

1245,  75  pp.,  illus.  (Supersedes  Bul.  545;  rev.  Bul.  1245.) 

(130)   AND  Clawson,  A.  B. 

1922.  THE  DEATH  CAMAS  SPECIES,  ZYGADENUS  PANICULATUS  AND  Z. 
ELEGANS,  AS  POISONOUS  PLANTS.  U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bul.  1012, 
25  pp.,  illus. 

(131)   AND  Clawson,  A.  B. 

1922.  THE  STOCK-POISONING  DEATH  CAMAS.  U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers' 
Bul.  1273,  11  pp.,  illus. 

(132)  AND  Clawson,  A.  B. 

1924.     THE     MEADOW     DEATH     CAMAS     (ZYGADENUS    VENENOSUS)      AS     A 

poisonous  PLANT.    U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bul.  1240,  14  pp.,  illus. 

(133)  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh,  Hadleigh. 

1915.  ZYGADENUS,  OR  DEATH  CAMAS.    U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bul.  125,  46  pp., 

illus. 

(134)  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh,  Hadleigh. 

1916.  LARKSPUR  poisoning  OF  LIVESTOCK,    U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bul.  365, 

91  pp.,  illus. 

(135)  Cla.wson,  a.  B.,  and  Marsh,  H. 

1934.  LARKSPUR  OR  "POISON  WEED."  U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bul. 
988,  rev.,  13  pp.,  illus.  [Supersedes  Bul,  531.] 

(136)  Martin,  Alexander  C,  Zim,  Herbert  S.,  and  Nelson,  Arnold  L. 

1951.    AMERICAN  wildlife  AND  PLANTS.   500  pp.,  illus.   New  York. 

(137)  Mathews,  Frank  P. 

1933.     the    toxicity    of    DRYMARIA    PACHYPHYLLA    for    CATTLE,    SHEEP 

AND  GOATS.  Amer.  Vet.  Med.  Assoc.  Jour.  83  (2),  n.  s.  36: 
255-260,  illus. 

(138)    

1942.  FERN  (NOTHOLAENA  SINUATA  VAR.  CRENATA)  POISONING  IN 
SHEEP    AND    GOATS    AND    CATTLE.     TeX.    Agr.    Expt.    Sta.    Bul. 

611,  15  pp.,  illus. 

(139)   

1945.  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  TOXICITY  OF  NOTHOLAENA  SINUATA  AND  N. 

SINUATA  VAR.  COCHISENSIS.    Rhodora  47:  393-395,  pi.  992. 

(140)  Merriam,  C.  Hart. 

1899.     results  OF  A  BIOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  MOUNT  SHASTA,  CALIFORNIA. 

North  Amer.  Fauna  16,  179  pp.,  illus. 

(141)  MuENscHER,  Walter  Conrad. 

1939.    poisonous  plants  of  the  united  states.  266  pp.,  illus, 

(142)  

1947.    weeds.   579  pp.    New  York. 

(143)  MULLER,  Georg. 

1897.    landwirtschaftliche  giftlehre.   171  pp.,  illus.   Berlin. 

(144)  Munz,  Philip  A. 

1946,  aquilegia:  the  cultivated  and  wild  columbines.   In  Bailey, 

L.  H.,  Gentes  Herbarium  7  (1)  :  1-150,  illus. 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS  231 

(145)  Nelson,  AvEN. 

1898.     THE  RED  DESERT  OF  WYOMING  AND  ITS   FORAGE  RESOURCES.     U.S. 

Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bui.  13,  72  pp.,  illus. 

(146)  NiEMAN,  K.  W. 

1928.     REPORT    OF    AN    OUTBREAK    OF    POISONING    IN    THE    DOMESTICATED 

FOWL,  DUE  TO  DEATH  CAMAS.    Amer.  Vet.  Med.  Assoc.  Jour. 
73:  627-630,  illus. 

(147)  OsoL,  Arthur,  Farrar,  George  F.,  Leuallen,  E.  Emerson,  and  others. 

1947.     THE  DISPENSATORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.     Ed.   24, 

1928  pp.  Philadelphia,  London  [etc.]. 

(148)  OwNBEY,  Gerald  Bruce. 

1947.     MONOGRAPH    OF    THE    NORTH    AMERICAN    SPECIES    OF    CORYDALIS. 

Mo.  Bot.  Gard.  Ann.  34:  187-260,  illus. 

(149)  OwNBEY,  Marion. 

1940.  A    MONOGRAPH    OF    THE    GENUS    CALOCHORTUS.      Mo.    Bot.    Gard. 

Ann.  27:  371-561,  illus. 

(150)  Palmer,  Lawrence  J. 

1934.  raising  reindeer  in  ALASKA.    U.S.  Dept.  Agr.  Misc.  Pub.  207, 

40  pp.,  illus. 

(151)  Pammel,  L.  H. 

1910-11.     A  MANUAL  OF  POISONOUS  PLANTS,  CHIEFLY  OF  EASTERN  NORTH 
AMERICA,  WITH  BRIEF  NOTES  ON  ECONOMIC  AND  MEDICINAL 

PLANTS  *  *  *  2  v.,  illus.   Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa. 

(152)    

1913.    POISONOUS  PLANTS  OF  THE  RANGE.   Ames  Forester  1 :  33  -  [43], 
illus. 

(153)  Parks,  H.B. 

1937.    VALUABLE  PLANTS  NATIVE  TO  TEXAS.    Tex.  Agr.  Expt.   Sta.  Bul. 
551,  173  pp.,  illus. 

(154)  Payson,  Edwin  Blake. 

1918.    THE  north  AMERICAN  SPECIES  OF  AQUiLEGiA.   U.S.  Natl.  Herba- 
rium Contrib.  20  (4)  :  133-158,  illus. 

(155)  Peck,  Morton  Eaton. 

1941.  A  MANUAL  OF  THE  HIGHER  PLANTS  OF  OREGON.    866  pp.,  frontisp. 

Portland,  Oreg. 

(156)  Phillips,  George  A  (rthur)  . 

1949.    delphiniums;  their  history  and  cultivation.   256  pp.,  illus. 
London. 

(157)  PiPAL,  F.  J. 

1918.  A  SUSPECTED  CASE  OF  STOCK  POISONING  BY  WILD  ONION  (ALLIUM 

CANADENSE).   Ind.  Acad.  Sci.  Proc.  1917:  139-143. 

(158)  Piper,  Charles  V.,  and  Beattie,  R.  Kent. 

1936.     FLORA    OF    southeastern    WASHINGTON    AND    ADJACENT    IDAHO. 

(Lithoprint  reissue  of  1914  ed.,   O.S.C.  Coop.   Assoc,   Cor- 
vallis,  Oreg.)  XI  +  296  pp.,  illus. 

(159)  PiTTIER,  H. 

1926.     manual  DE  las  PLANTAS  USUALES  DE  VENEZUELA.    458  pp.,  illus. 
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(160)  Platenius,  H.  D. 

1935.  A    METHOD    FOR    ESTIMATING    THE    VOLATILE    SULPHUR    CONTENT 

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(161)  PORSILD,  A.  E. 

1943.     MATERIALS  FOR  A  FLORA  OF  THE  CONTINENTAL  NORTHWEST  TER- 
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(162)  Pott,  Emil. 

1904-09.    handbuch  der  tierischen  ernahrung  und  der  landwirt- 

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232  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

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(167)  ROBBINS,  W.  W.,  AND  BOYACK,  B. 

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(168)  ROTHROCK,  J.  T. 

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(171) 

(172) 

(173) 

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1932.     FLORA  OF  THE  PRAIRIES  AND  PLAINS  OF  CENTRAL  NORTH  AMERICA. 

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(188)  Stebbins,  G.  Ledyard,  Jr. 

1938.  THE  AMERICAN  SPECIES  OF  PAEONIA.   Madrofio  4:  252-260,  illus. 

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1950.    VARIATION  AND  EVOLUTION  IN  PLANTS.    Columbia  Biol.  Ser.  16, 
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(190)  Stern,  F.C. 

1946.    A  study  of  the  genus  PAEONIA.   155  pp.,  illus. 

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(192)  Stewart,  Robert  N. 

1943.    OCCURRENCE  OF  ANEUPLOIDS  IN  LILIUM.    Bot.  Gaz.  104:  620-626. 

(193)  Stout,  E.N. 

1939.  SUCKLEYA    SUCKLEYANA   A    POISONOUS    PLANT.     Colo.    State    Col. 

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(194)  Strausbaugh,  P.  D.,  and  Core,  Earl  L. 

1953.    FLORA  OF  WEST  VIRGINIA  (PART  ii).   W.  Va.  Univ.  Bul.  Ser.  53, 
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(195)  SwANSON,  Edward  E.,  Youngken,  Heber  W.,  et  al. 

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(197)  Taylor,  Carl  A. 

1956.  ALKALOID  YIELDS  OF  VERATRUM   FIMBRIATUM   AS   INFLUENCED  BY 

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(199)  Thieret,  John  W. 

1956.    bryophytes  as  economic  plants.    Econ.  Bot.  10   (1)  :  75-91. 

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234  AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  1(51.  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 

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1937.  the  calcium  and  phosphorus  contents  of  important  new 
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1934.  SILAGE  palatability  tests.    Amer.  Soc.  Agron.  Jour.  26   (2)  : 

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(209)  Whiting,  Alfred  F. 

1939.    ethnobotany  of  the  hopi.   N.  Ariz.  Mus.  Bul.  15,  120  pp. 

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1936.    A  TEXT  book  of  pharmacognosy.  Ed.  4.  924  pp.,  illus. 


INDEX 

This  is  an  index  of  the  genera,  species,  subspecies,  and  varieties 
of  plants  discussed  or  mentioned  in  the  body  of  this  publication. 
Accepted  names  of  species,  genera,  etc.,  both  Latin  and  English 
appear  in  boldface  type.  Synonymous  Latin  names  are  in  italic. 
Where  the  Latin  and  English  generic  names  are  identical,  the  Eng- 
lish name  is  not  listed  separately.  For  example,  the  listing  for 
candle  anemone  would  appear  only  once:  Anemone  cylindrica 
(candle  a.). 


Page 
41 
41 

105 
106 
106 
106 


A  bama    

calif omica  

Abronia    (sandverbena)  

elliptica    (redstem   s.) 

fragrans    (snowball   s.) 

latifolia   (yellow  s.) 

Acanthochiton  ivrightii 

(Hopiweed)   ._  .  99 

Achlys  triphylla    (vanillaleaf ) ..  206 

Achyranthes  repens 100 

Acleisanthes     (angel-trumpet)..  105 

longi flora   (longtube  a.-t.)....  107 

obtusa   107 

Acnida   (waterhemp) 99 

altissima  (tall  w.) 99 

tamariscina   (tamarisk  w.)..  100 

aconite 154 

Aconituni  (monkshood).... 154,  171,  185 

arizonicuni  156, 157 

bakeri  (Baker  m.)  158 

columbianuni  (Columbia 

m.)    .....155, 156, 157, 158, 185 

bakeri  158 

lycoctonuni    (wolfbane)  154 

napellus  (aconite  m.)...  154,  155,  158 
patens  156, 157 


porrectum 

robertianum 

Aconogonum   

davisiae  

phytolaccae folium  ... 

Actaea   (baneberry) 

alba  

arguta  (western  b.)- 

eburnea  

rubra    (red  b.) 

neglecta  (forma) 
spicata  (black  b.) 


158 

158 

.....  72,  74 

82 
......  80, 81 

159 
159 
...  159, 160 
159 
159 
159 
159 

arguta 159, 160 

adderstongue  26,  33 

adderstongue,  fetid 26 


Page 
Adiantum  petlatum 

(maidenhair)     7 

aleuticuni   7 

Adlumia  (mountainfringe) 219 

Adonis   (adonis)... 143 

vernalis   (spring  a.) 143 

Agaricus  (agaricus) 2 

Agrostemma    (corncockle) 123 

githago    (common  c.) 123 

Alectoria    (alectoria) 2 

Alisma     (waterplantain) 192 

Allenrolfea    (pickleweed) 85 

Allieae    14 

Allioideae  14 

Allionia    (allionia) 107 

coccinea    116 

comata    114 

decipiens 114 

divaricata 108, 114, 115 

gausapoides  114 

hirsuta   114 

incarnata  (trailing  a.) 108 

linearis  114, 115 

subhispida   114 

melanotricha  114 

pilosa 114 

subhispida   114 

Allioniaceae  105 

Allioniella Ill 

oxybaphoides  112 

Allium  (onion)  12,  13,  14,  51,  52 

acuminatum   (tapertip  o.)  ...  15 

anceps    (twinleaf  o.) 19 

ascalonicum    (shallot) 15 

bisceptruni   (twincrest  o.)  ....  19 

brandegei   (Brandegee  o.)  ...  19 

brevistylum  (shortstyle  o.).--  15 

caeruleuni    (blueglobe   o,)  ...  15 

campanulatum   (dusky  o.)....  19 

canadense  (Canada  garlic)....  15 

cepa   (garden  o.) 15 


235 


236    AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Allium   (onion) — Continued 

cernuum    (nodding  o.) 16,17,27 


coUitium    - 

falcifoUum    (sickleleaf  o.) 

fihrillum    (Idaho  o.) 

geyeri  (Geyer  o.)   

kunthii   (Kunth  o.) 

moly   (lilv  leek)    

neapolitaiium    (Naples  c). 

ncoyncxicanum 

palmeri  

porrunt  (leek) 

recu rvat h tn    


satirum   (garlic) 

scaposiun   

schoenoprasuni   (chives) 15,19 

sibiricum   (Siberian 

chives)    -  --  15,19 

serratum    (serrate  o.) 19 

sibiricum    "*      19 

textile  (textile  o.) 19 

tolmiei  (Tolmie  o.) 19 

talidum    (Pacific  o.) 15,16 


rineale  (field  garlic). 

allseed  (Polycarpon)  

California  (P.  depressum)  ., 
fourleaf  (P.  tetraphyllum ) 

Aloe  (aloes)  

harbadensis    (Mediterannean 
a.) 

ferox    (Cape  a.)  

perryi   (Perry  a.)  

vera  

alplily  (Lloydia  serotina) 

Alsine   

baicalensis   

ja  mesiana 

laeta    


15 
134 
134 

134 
13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

37 

140 

142 

140 

142 

142 

142 

124 

128 

217 

100 
98 
98 

Amaranthus    (amaranth)    99,  100 

albus    (tumbleweed  a.)  — 

blitoidcs    .... 

caudalus   (love-lies-bleeding) 

graecizann    (prostrate   a.) 

hypochondriacus 

(princess-feather) 

palmeri   (Palmer  a.) 

Amaryllidaceae  

amaryllis    

Amblostima  


Ion  gi  pes „ 

media 

A  Isinopsis 

obtitsiloba  -. 

altainisa   

Alternanthera  repens 

(creeping  chaffflower) 

Amaranthaceae   

Amaranth  family 


Ammianthium    (crowpoison) 

Amniocodon  chenopodioides 

(sandbell)     

Ammodenia 

oblongifolia   


101 
101 
100 
101 

100 
101 
13 
13 
26 
42 

116 

1281 


Ammodenia — Continued 

pcploides 
Anabaena   (anabaena) 
Androstephium    (funnel-lily)    . 

brerifloriini   (purple  f.-l.)  .. 

caeritleum   (blue  f.-l.) 

I'iolacciim  

^nejfiorie  (anemone) 

cylindrica   (candle  a.) 

deltoidea    (threeleaf   a.)  

globosa  (globe  a.) 

hudsoniana  (Hudsonian  a.). 

ludoviciana 

lyallii 

mountain    


PaKe 

128 

2 

20 

20 

20 

20 

143 

144 

144 

145,146 

145 

147 

147 

145 

145 

145 

145 


multifida  (Argentine  a.) 

globosa    

h  udson  ia  na 

neniorosa  (European  wood 

a.)     144, 145, 146 

occidentalis    147 

oregana 147 

Pacific 145 

patens 147 

piperi    145 

Pulsatilla    148 

quinquefolia  (American  wood 

a.)    145, 147 

lyallii   (Lyall  a.)   147 

oregana  (Oregon  a.) 147 

Anemone  tribe 143 

Anemoneae   143 

Aneiiionella  thalictroides   (rue- 
anemone;  anemonella)  ....  189 

angelica,  coyote 151 

angels-trumpet   107 

angel-trumpet    (Acleisanthes)  105 

longtube    (A.    longiflora) 107 

Angraccum  fragrans  62 

Anthericum    (anthericum)    25, 41 

liliago    (St.   Bernard-lily) 25 

ossifragum  41 

torreyi    (Torrey  a.)__ 25 

Anticlea  49,50,51 


elegans   

Antirrhinu7n  cymbalaria 
Anulocaulis  (gumjoint) 
Aphaiiisnia  blitoides 

(aphanisma)    

April-fools  

Aquilegia  (columbine)  .. 
brevistyla  (Yukon  c.).. 
caerulea   (Colorado  c.) 

albi flora  

daileyae     

ochroleuca  (white  Colorado 

c.)    _-_ 

pinetoruni  

ca  I  ifo  rn  ica    

canadensis   (American  c; 

Canada  c.)   — 

chrysantha  (golden  c.) 162,  164 


52 
198 
116 

85 
147 
161 
161 
162, 163 
164 
164 

164 
162 
166 

161 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


237 


Aquilegia   (columbine) — Continued         Atragene 


elegantula  (westemred  c). 
flarescens    (yelloM    c.)- 

minor    (forma) 

formosa    (Sitka   e.)__ 

flarcscens 

triincata 
glandulosa  (Altai  c.)- 


4  triplex   (saltbash)   

autumn-crocas  (Colchietum 

autumnale 

azalea 


babv»breath  (GyputphUa 
paniculata) 


hinckleyana  (Hinckley  c)- 

Icptocera 


longUsima   (loiig:spiir  c). 

pinetorum 

scopulorum   (Utah  c.) . 

skinneri   (Skinner  c.) 

truncata    


vulgaris  (European  c)_ 
.Arctomecon  (bearpoppy) 
Arenaria    (sandMort) 


Balsam orrhiza  fagitUila 

(arrovleaf  baUamroot) 

bal«'aniroot.  arroxleaf 

( Balsam orrhiza  sagittate) 

Bongard   (R.  bongardii) 

black  (A.  spicata) 

red   (A,  rubra) 


western  (A.  argula)^ 

u-estern   red 


aculeata   (prickly  g.). 

uintahensis 

biflora 

burkei    (Burke  s.) 

capiUaris 


congest  a  (ballhead  s.)- 

subcongesfa   

suffrutescens 

fendleri  (Fendler  s.)  — 

subcongcsta    

formosa  (fescue  s.) 

glabrescens    

laricifolia 

lateriflora 

macrophylla 

viarcescens 


barberry-  (Berberis) 

Barberry  family  

ba^ketgrass    

Bassia  (bassia)  

hyssopi  folia 

bassinet  


Batraehium  

trichophyllum 

bats-ears 

beadlily  (Clintonia) 

beadruby    (Maianthemum) 
bear grass 


148 


123 
103 


195 

159 

159 

159, 160 

159 

206 

206 

38 

91 

90 

190 

190 

201 


nuttallii  (Nnttalls.) 

obtusa  

obtusiloba 

peploides 


bearprass  (XerophyUum) 

conunon  (X.  tenax) 

Dougla?  (A',  douglasii)- 
tnrkey beard  (A. 

asphodeloides)  

bearpoppy  (Arctomecon) 

Becku'ithia 

andersonii 


_    23 

_  13,23 
27 
.37,  38,  39 
_  38,40 
_    40 

_    38 


iajanensi*    (Siberian  s.) 128 

suhcongesta   126 

uintahensis  (Uinta  s.) 125 

Argemone   (pricklepoppv) 208,  209 

hispida    210 

intermedia  (intermediate  p.)  209 

niex-icana    (Mexican  p.) 209 

platyceras  (crested  p.)- 209,  210,  211 
hispida  (hedgehog  p.) 

Asparagroideae 

Asparagus   (asparagus) 


beet,  conunon  (Rett 

belvedere 

Berberidaceae   


rulgari*)^ 


asparagoides    (sniilax  a.)- 
officinalis  (garden  a.) 

Asparag-us  subfamily 

Asphodel  subfamily 

Asphodel  tribe 

Asphodeleae 

Asphodeloideae 

Aspidiaceae 

Aspidium 

filix-mas 

munitui7i 


Asplenium   (spleenMort) 
Athyrium  filix-femina 
(ladyfern) 


210 
23 

13,23 
23 

13,23 
23 
25 
25 
25 
25 
7 

8,12 

9 

12 

8 


Berberis  (barberry) 
Beta  rulgaris   ( 

BicncuUa 

BikukuUa 

canadensis  _ 
chrysantha  _ 

cucuUaria 

formosa 


beet). 


occidentalis    

uni flora    

Bilderdykia 

bistort  (Poiygonuwn^  sec> 

Bistorta)    

American    (P.   bistortmJes). 

European  (P.  bistorta) 

viviparous  (P.  ririp€irum)^ 

Bistorta 

bigtortoides    

major   . 

vivipara 

bite-tongue _ 


190 

194 

85 

93 

206 

206 

85 

219 

219 


222 


72 

72 
r5,76 
75 
75 
(2,74 
75 
75 
75 
79 


238   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


bitterroot   (Lewisia  rediviva)  -  118,  119 

bladclorfern  (Cystopteris)  12 

Blcchnnm  apicavt       12 

bledo  101 

bIcodingh<>art    (Dicentrn)  219 

common   (D.  spectabilis)        220,  222 

fringed  (I),  pxiniia)            22? 

Pacific  (D.  formosa)  —  222 

Blituin   (blitc)                 88 

capitntiitn    (strawberry  b.)  88,89 
bloodlcaf  (Iresine)                          99, 103 

Herhsl  (I.  herbstii)  103 

Linden  (I.  lindetiii)  103 

variable  (I.  heterophylla)  103 

bloodwccd                  88 

Bloomeria  (bloomeria)  20 

clerelatulii    (Cleveland  b.)  20 

crocea    (darkstripe   b.)  20 

bluebell                               , ^  ^^  27 

blue-evedgrass    ( Sisyrinchium )  5b,  59 

alkali  (S.  halophilum)  61 

California   (S.   helium)  60 

common    (S.  an gusti folium)  59 

Donglas   (S.  douglasii)  60 

Idabo    (S.   idahoense)  60 

Montana  (S.  occideiitale)  61 

stickypod  (S.  radicatum)  60 

western  60 

Boehmeria    tiivea    (ramie)  62 
Boerhaavia    (spiderling)                105,108 

caribaea   .    108 

coccinea    (scarlet   s.) 108 

erecta   (erect  9.) 109 

intermedia    109 

thornberi 109 

gracillima   (slim  8.)  -  109 

intermedia  109 

thornberi _ — -  109 

viscosa    .      108 

oligadena      - -  108 

bog-asphodel  (ISarthecium)  .37,41,42 

California  (IS.  californicum)  41 

bog-asphodel  41 
bouncingbet  (Saponaria 

officinalis)    130 

Bourbontea  (Juntella 

fragrans)    _ —  62 

bouton  d'or       190 

bracken   (Pteridium;  Pteridium 

aquilinum)  10 
eastern  (P.  a.  latiusculum)  10 
western  (P.  a.  pubescens)  10,  11 
brake  10 
Brayulinea  densa   (brayulinea)  102 
Brevoortia  ida-maia    (floral- 
firecracker)  23 
Brodiaea    (brodiaea)             13,21,51,52 
capitata    (bluedicks    b.)  21 
coronaria    (harvest    b.)  21,22 
douglasii    (Douglas  b.)           ..  22 

grandiflora 21,22 

hyacinthina    (hyacinth  b.)  -  22 

laxa   (grassnut  b.)  22 


Brodiaea    (brodiaea) — Continued 

peduncularis    (longstalk    b.)  22 

buckwheat    (Fagopyrum)  64 

common  (F.  esculentuni)  ....  64 

Buckwheat  family 64 

bucku'heat,  wild       65,80 

bugbane  (Cimicifuga)            169 

Arizona  (C.  arizonica)            ..  169 

cohosh  (C.  racemosa)  169 

cutleaf   (C.   laciniata)  169 

ML  Hood 169 

tall  (C.  elata)     ^ 169 

bngseed    - 90 

bunchflower   (Melanthium)   ....  42 

Bunchflower  subfamily  37 

bushpoppy  (Dendromecon)  208 

butterbhtme    ..-.  190 

buttercup  (Ranunculus)  190 

Adonis  (R.  adoneus)  191 
Alaska   straightbeak    (R. 
orthorhyncus 

alaschensis)  201 

Anderson  (R.  andersonii)  .  194 
blister  (R.  sceleratus)  190,  202 
Blue  Mountains  (R. 

occidentalis  dissect  us)  198 

Bongard   (R.  bongardii)  195 

bulbous  (R.  bulbosus)  202 
California  (R.  californicus)    197,  198 

Collom  (R.  collomae)  192 
Eisen  (R.  occidentalis 

eisenii)             198 

Elk  Mountain  (R.  occidentalis 

ultramontanus)  198 

Eschscholtz  (S, 

eschscholtzii)  191 

giant — 201 

great  straightbeak  (R, 
orthorhyncus 

platyphyllus)   201 

j       hairleaf  watercrowfoot   (R. 

I                 aquatilis  capillaceus)  201 

I       Harlweg  (R.  alismaefolius 

I                 harticegii) 192 

I       hoarv  (R.  canus)  _ 197,198 

iv^j                  - -- 198 

littleleaf   (R.   ahortivus)  197 

Macoun  (R.  macounii)  196 

McCauley    (R.   niacauleyi)  200 

meadoiv 190 

Montana  (R.  occidentalis 

montanensis) 198 

Nelson                      _.  200 

Persian  (R.  asiaticus) 190 

plantainleaf  (R. 

alismaefolius)  192 
Rattan   (R.  occidentalis 

rattanii)               198 

rogue                          190 

sagebrush    (R.   glaberrimus)  199 

shore  (R.  cymbalaria)  198 

smallflower   (R.  inamoenus)  200 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


239 


Page 

buttercup  (Ranunculus) — Continued 
8traightbeak  (R, 

orthorhrncus)    201 

tall  (R.  acris)  190, 196 

trailing  198 

Utah  200 

watercrowfoot  (R.  aquatilis)  201 

western  (R.  occidentalis)  197 

Buttercup  family  143,206 

Calandrinia   (rockpurslane)   -__.  116 

caulescens  ynenziesii 116 

ciliata    (redmaids)    116 

menziesii 116 

California-poppy  ( Eschscholzia 

californtca)    212,  215 

Calliprora 21 

Calochortaceae   29 

Calochortits    (mariposa)   .13,  29,  51,  52 

coeruleus    (skyblue   m.) 29,30 

elegans  (Northwestern  m.)  29,  30,  31 

eury carpus  32 

gunnisonii  (Gunnison  m.)     -     30,31 
macrocarpus  (sagebrush  m.)  31 

maweanus    30 

nitidus    (broadfruit  m.) 32 

nuttallii  (sego-lily)  32,  52 

Caltha   (marshmarigold)     166,  182 

bi flora    (twinflower  m.) 167 

hotvellii    (Howell  m.) 167 

howellii  167 

leptosepala  (elkslip  m.) 167,  168 

rotundifolia  (roundleaf 

m.)    167 

palustris  (common  m.)  166,  167,  168 
rotundifolia  167 

Calyptridium  (calyptridium)  ..  117 

nudum    122 

roseum    (rosy  c.) 117 

camas   (Camassia)   28,50,51,52 

blue  28 

common  (C.  quamash)  28 

Cusick    (C.  cusickii) 28 

Camassia    (camas)    28,  50,  51,  52 

cusickii  (Cusick  c.) 28 

esculenta 28 

quamash  (common  c.) 28 

campion,  (Lychnis)  134,  135 

Drummond    135 

campion   135 

Mexican    137 

moss    135 

canaigre  (Rumex 

hymenogepalus) 83 

Canbya    208 

Cannabinaceae   62 

Capnodes 216 

Capnoides 216 

aureum  217 

brachycarpum  218 

brandegei 218 

caseanum  218 

cusickii  218 


Page 

Capnoides — Continued 

hastatum   218 

montanum   _.  217 

scouleri  _ 219 

carelessweed    101 

carnation  (Dianthus;  D. 

caryophyllus)     123 

carrionflower  (Smilax 

herbacea)        55 

woollynerve  (S.  h. 

lasioneuron)    55 

cartwheel  108 

Caryophyllaceae  123 

catchfly 135 

sleepy   136 

cats-ears 29,  31 

catsfoot 65 

Celosia  argentea  (cockscomb)..  99 

Cerastium    (cerastium)    129 

arvense  (starry  c.) 130 

beeringianutn   (Bering  c.)....  130 

campestre   (plains  c.) 130 

nutans  (nodding  c.)  130 

scopulorum  (Rocky  Mountain 

c.)    130 

strictum    (common   c.) 130 

tomentosum    (snow-in- 

summer)     129 

viscosum    (sticky    c.)  - —  129 

chaffflower,  creeping 

( Alternanthera  repens)  ....  100 

chainfern   (Woodwardia)   12 

chaparral,  grmmd  69 

Cheilanthes  (lipfern)  12 

Chenopodiaceae    85 

Chenopodiuni  (goosefoot)   85,86 

album   (lambsquarters  g.)    86,  87,  88 

ambrosioides   (wormseed  g.)  86 

anthelminticum  86 

atrovirens    (dark  g.) 86 

bonus-henricus  (Good  King 

Henry)    86 

botrys   (Jerusalem-oak  g.)  86 

capitatum 89 

cornutum  88 

fremontii   (Fremont  g.) 86 

incisum   (raggedleaf  g.) 88 

leptophyllum    (slimleaf  g.)--  88 

quinoa  (quinoa)  86 

chicalote  209 

chickweed  (Stellaria  media).  .139,  142 

chickweed 130 

jagged 133 

mountain   140 

ynouse-ear 130 

chives  (Allium  schoenoprasum )  15,  19 

Siberian  (A.  s.  sibiricum)  15,  19 
Chlorogalum  pomeridianum 

(amole  soapplant)   25 

Chorizanthe  64 

palmer i   (Palmer 

spineflower)     64 

staticoides    (Turkish-rug)    ...  64 


240        AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


PaKe 
Christnias-fern    ( Polystichum 

acrostichoides) 9 

Christmasrose  (Helleborus 

niger)    45,  154 

Christtnas-rose    206 

Chrtjsocoptis  occklentalis  170 

Chrysogonuni    (goldenstar)    ....  2.0 

cigaretteplant 68 

Cimicifuga    (bugbane)    169 

arizonica    (Arizona  b.) 169 

Plata   (tall  b.)      169 

laciniata    (cutleaf    b.) 169 

racemosa   (cohosh  b.) 169 

Cladonia  rangiferina 

(reindeermoss)    — 2 

Cladothrix   104 

lanuginosa  104 

oblongifolia   _ -—  104 

stiff ruticosa   105 

Claytonia   (springbeauty)    117,  119,  223 

asarifolia  119 

bellidifolia  118 

chamissoi  120 

lanceolata  (lanceleaf  s.) 117 

linearis  120 

tnegarrhiza   (alpine  s.) 118 

tmdtiscapa  117 

perfoliata  ..__.  120 

sibirica  ____  120 

Clematis    (clematis) _. 148 

douglasii 149 

hirsutissima    (Douglas   c.)....  149 

clematis,  hairy 149 

cliffbrake  (Pellaea)  12 

Clintonia  (beadlily)  23 

cloakfern   (Notholaena) 8, 12 

bulb  (IS.  sinuata) 8 

Clubmoss  family 5 

cockle,  spring  213 

cockscomb  (Celosia  argentea)..  99 

cohosh,  black 169 

Colchicutn  autumnale  (autumn- 
crocus)    13 

columbine   (Aquilegia)   161 

Altai   (A.  glandulosa) _ 162 

American  (A.  canadensis)....  161 

California  (A.  formosa)  166 

Canada  (A.  canadensis) 161 

Colorado    (A.   caerulea) 162,  163 

white  (A.  caerulea 

ochroleuca)    ..        164 

European    (A.   vulgaris) 162 

golden  (A.  chrysantha)     162,  164 

Hinckley    (A,   hinckleyana)  .  161 

longspur  (A.  longissima) 161 

Sitka    (A.  formosa)  165 

Skinner    (A.    skinneri)      162 

Utah    (A.   scopulorum) 166 

westernred   (A,  elegantula)..  164 

yellow  (A.  flavescens) 165 

Yukon    (A.    brevistyla)  161 
Commicarpus  scandens 

(gumseed)   116 


Page 
Convallaria  majalis    (lily-of-the- 

valley)     - 14 

Convolvulus  jalapa 111 

copa  de  oro  212 

Coptidium    _ 190 

Coptis  (goldthread) 169 

groenlandica   170 

laciniata  (cutleaf  g.) 170 

occidentalis    (western   g.)  170 

trifolia    (common    g.)  170 
groenlandica   (Greenland 

g.)    170 

cordgrass,  alkali  (Spartina 

gracilis)    94 

Corispermum    (tickseed) 90,  101 

hyssopifolium   (hyssopleaf  t.)  90 

nitidum   (shiny  t.)  90 

cornbind  72 

corncockle   (Agrostemma)   123 

common  (A.  githago)  123 

cornlily  45 

corn,  wild  45 

Corrigiolaceae  123 

Corydalis  (corydalis)   216 

aurea  (golden  c.) 217 

occidentalis  (mountain  c.)  217 

brachycarpa    218 

brandegei  _ 218 

caseana    (fitweed  c.) 217,218 

brachycarpa    (Utah   c.) 218 

brandegei    (Brandegee  c.)  218 

cusickii  (Cusick  c.) 218 

hastata  (Idaho  c.) 218 

cusickii  —  218 

hastata 218 

montana 217 

scouleri  (Scouler  c.) 219 

cottonweed  (Diotis 

candidissima)    102 

cow-cabbage  45 

cowcockle  (Vaccaria;  V. 

segetalis)    130,  131 

cowherb -.  131 

cowslip   167 

cranesbill  155 

creamcups  (Platystemon 

calif ornicus)    207,  215 

Crithmum  maritimuni 

(samphire)     95 

Crocidium  (goldstar) 20 

crocus   (Crocus) 14,  56 

saffron  (C.  sativus) 14 

crowfoot 190 

cursed  — 190 

desert  _ 198,  200 

water    198,  201 

crowpoison  (Ammianthium)  ..  42 

Crnnocallis _ 119 

chamissonis   120 

Cycloloma   (ringwing) 

atriplicifolium    (tumble   r.)  90 
Cymbalaria  muralis 

(Kenilworth-ivy)     198 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


241 


Page 

Cyphotneris  gypsophiloides  116 

Crpripediitm    (ladyslipper)  62 

calceolits    (European  1.) 62 

parrifloruni   (small  yellow 

1.)             62 

parviflorum  62 

Cyrtorhijnca    -.„  190 

Crstopteris  (bladderfern)  12 

Danesblood - 147 

Dasrlirion  (sotol)  27 

Datura   (datura)   107 

arborea    (floripondio   d.) 107 

suaveolens   (angeltears  d.) --  107 

davlilv    (Hemerocallis)    26 

Dayliiy  tribe  26 

deathcamas   (Zigadenus)   13,16,28,32, 
37,38,42,49,59,187 

Atlantic  (Z.  glaberrimus) 50 

foothill  (Z.  paniculatus)  _„  51,  53,  54 

Fremont  (Z.  fremontii)  55 

grassy  (Z.  grainineus) 51,  52 

meadow  (Z,  venenosus)  50,  53,  55,  58 

mountain  (Z.  elegans) 51,  52 

panicled  53 

white  (Z.  glaucus) 52 

deerfern  ( Struthiopteris 

spicant)     12 

deerfoot    206 

Delphinium  (larkspur)  154,  171 

ahietorum  187 

ajacis  (rocket  1.) 171 

andersonii  (Anderson  1.) 180 

attenuatum   182, 184 

barbeyi  (Barbey  1.) 173,  182,  184 

bicolor   (little  1.)   -174, 175, 178, 180 

broicnii    (Browns   1.) 171,186 

chaniissonis  (Chamisso  1.)     -  171 

cockerellii  182, 184 

columbianum  177 

ciicullatum  188 

decorum   (yellowtinge  1.) 174 

patens  177 

tracyi  (Tracy  1.)  176 

depauperatum,    (slim   1.)         174,  177, 

178, 181 

diversifoliuin    (slender   1.)  -  -  181 

harneyense    (Harney  1.)  -  181 

geyeri    (Geyer  1.) 189 

glaucum   (Sierra  1.)  173,  186 

luteuni    (Sonoma   1.)    181 

menziesii    (Menzies  1.) -178,  179,  180 

pyramidale 178 

multiflorum  187 

nehonii  (Nelson  1.) 178,180 

pinetorum    (forma)    178 

nudicaule   (orange  1.) 181 

luteum    181 

nuttallii   (Columbia  1.) 177 

nuttallianum    (Nuttall   1.)     -174,  177, 

178, 181 

occidentale    (duncecap   1.)  -  -  187 

cucuUatum  188 


Page 

Delphinium   (larkspur) — Continued 

quercicola  188 

patens    (spreading   1.) 176 

pauciflorum  178 

pinetorum 178 

qiiercetoriim    188 

reticulatum    187 

robustum   (giant  1.) 188 

scaposuni    (barestem  1.) 181 

scopulorum    (Wright  1.) 182,183 

glaucum   .         186 

stachydeum   182, 189 

subalpinum    182, 184 

stachydeum    (thickspike)     .182,  189 
staphisagria    (stavesacre  1.)  -  174 

subalpinum    182, 184 

Dendromecon  (bushpoppy)  ....  208 

desertlily   (Hesperocallis 

undulata)  25 

desert-trumpet  (Eriogonum 

inflatum)   67 

devils-bouquet  107 

Dianthus  (pink;  carnation)  ....123,130 

135 

armeria   (Deptford  p.) 130 

barbatus   (sweetwilliam)   123 

caryophyllus   (carnation; 

clove  p.)  123,  130 

Dicentra   (bleedingheart)    219 

canadensis  (squirrelcorn)  ...  220,  221 
chrysantha   (gold-eardrops)  220 

cucullaria  (Dutchmans- 

breeches)    . ._ .219,  220 

occidentalis    222 

exiniia  (fringed  b.) 222 

formosa  (Pacific  b.) 222 

occidentalis    222 

spectabilis  (common  b.) 220,  222 

uni flora  (steershead)  223 

Dichelostemma    „  21 

capitatum  22 

Diotis  candidissima 

(cottonweed) 163 

Dipterostemon 21 

capitatus    22 

Disporum   (fairybells)  23 

Distichlis   (saltgrass)   94 

dock   (Rumex)   83 

curly  (R.  crispus)  83 

Mexican  (R.  mexicanus) 84 

veiny    (R.   venosus) 84 

western  (R.  occidentalis) 84 

willow  (R.  salicifolius) 84 

dogtooth-violet 33 

Dondia    ..._ 97 

depressa  97 

diffusa 98 

erecta   97 

nigra  98 

doorweed    79 

Dracaena  (dracaena)  27 

draco  (dragontree)  27 

dracaena,  dragon  27 


242        AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  IGl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Paure 

Dracaena  subfamily  27 

Dracaenoideae                13,27 

dragonlrec   (Dracaena  draco)..  27 

ciru$;squill  (Urginea)  14,27 

India  (U.  indica) 14,  28 

shore  (U.  maritima) 14,  27 

Drymaria   (drymary)   131. 

cordata    132 

crassifolia  — -  132 

holosteoides   — -  132 

pachyphylla    (thickleaf   d.)    132,  133 

Dryopteris    (woodfern)  8 

filix-mas    (nialefern)  8 

marginalis    (leather    w.)  8 

Dutchnians-breeches  (Dicentra 

cucullaria)   .._ 219,  220 

Easter-flower   _.— _ —.  147 

Echinopsilon    (fivehook) 
hyssopifoliuni   (hyssopleaf 

'      f.)    - ---  90 

ecopa  _ 26 

Edwinia 69 

elder,  European  (Sambucus 

nigra)   159 

elkfern    12 

elkgrass    38 

elksHp  167 

Eniex  spinosa  (spiny  emex)    -  64 

Equisetaceae  2 

Equisetuni    (horsetail;  scouring- 

rush)        — 3 

arvense  (field  h.)  3 

hyemale  (common  scouring- 

rush)  — -  5 

affine 5 

robiistum   — 5 

kansanum  (Kansas  h.) —.  5 

laevigatuni    (smooth  h.)._ 5 

palustre  (marsh  h.) -  4 

praealtuni   (stout  scouring- 

rush)  5 

pratense  (meadow  h.) 4 

robnstum           5 

variegatum    (variegated   h.)-  5 
Eremocrinum  albomarginatuni 

(eremocrinum)                      _  25 

Eriogonuni    (criogonum)    64,65 

alatum    (wing  e.)      - 66 

caespitosuni    (mat  e.) 68 

cernuuni  (nodding  e.)  66,  67 

compositum   (northern  e.) ---  72 

elatuni    (rush   e.)    68 

flavunt  (yellow  e.)    - 68,  69 

piperi —  69 

heracleoides    (Wyeth   e.) 72,73 

inflatum    (desert-trumpet)    -  67 

jamesii    (James    e.)  69 

neglectuni    (Greene  e.) —  72 

nudum   (barestem  e.) —  69,70 

ovalifoliutn  (cushion  e., 

ovalleaf  e.)    69,70 

pharnaceoides   (wirestem  e.)  68 


Pajte 

Eriogonum   (eriogonum) — Continued 

piperi    (Piper  e.)  69 

polycladon  (sorrel  e.)  67 

proli/eruni    (scragglytop    e.)  71 

racemosuni   (redroot  e.)  70,71 

stellatnm  (longray  e.) 72 

aubalpinum    (subalpine   e.)  72 

umbellatum    (sulfur  e.)    70,71 

stellatnm 72 

viniineuni   (broom  e.) 67 

Erocallis               118 

Erythronium    (fawnlily)    26, 32 

dens-canis  (dogtooth  f.) 33 

giganteuvi    33 

grandiflorum  (lambstongue 

f.)    „ 33,34 

pallidum 33 

parviflorum  33 

parviflorum  33 

Eschscholzia  (goldpoppy)  207,208,210 
californica  (California- 
poppy)    212,  215 

crocea    213 

mexicana    (Mexican  g.)  213,214 

minutiflora  (little  g.)       212 

parvula  _ 213 

Eulophia   (eulophia) 62 

Eurotia    (winterfat)    _ 85 

everlasting  103 

Exogoniuni  jalapa  (jalap) 111 

purga    111 

Fagopyrum    (buckwheat)    64 

esculentum  (common  b.) 64 

sagittatum  64 

fairybells  (Disporum)  23 

fairylantern 29,  31 

false-bugbane  (Trautvetteria 

caroliniensis)         153 

falsegarlic  ( !\othoscordum)  ....  21 

yellow  (IS.  bivalve) 21 

Texas  (M.  texanum)  21 

false-hellebore  (Veratrum)     13,14,37, 
42,44 

American   (V.   viride)  45,48,49 

Eschscholtz  (V. 

eschschoUzii)     49 

fringed    (V.  fintbriatum)  49 

western  (V.  cali/ornicum)  45,46,48, 

49 

white  (V.  album)     45 

False-hellebore  tribe  42 

false-Solo7nonseal        _ 23 

fameflower    (Talinum)    —  122 

narrowleaf  (T. 

angustissimum)  123 

orange  (T,  aurantiacum)  123 

fawnlily    (Erythronium)  26,32 

dogtooth   (E.  dens-canis)  33 

lambstongue   (E. 

grandiflorum)     33, 34 

featherbell 44 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


243 


fealherflecce  (Stenaiithiiini 
robustum) 

feiirnc  

ferns    -^ 

Ferula  communis  (common 

giantfennel)     

fit  weed    

fivehook  (Echinopsilon) 
hyssopleaf  (E. 

hyssopi  folium)    

flag       

flag-Uhj 

Flammnla    

fleecefloMer    

pokeweed  (Polygonum 

phytolaccae folium  )    

fleny-de-lis  

floral-firecracker  (Brevoortia 

ida-maia)    

food,  mountain   (Oreobroma) - 

four-o'clock  (Mirabilis)    

Bigelow   (M.  bigelovii)      

Colorado  (M.  multiflora)  . 
common  (M.  jalapa)  ^  105, 
longtube   (M.  longiflora)   ^ -_ 

trailing  

umbrellawort  (M. 

oxybaphoides)  

Wright  (M.  longiflora 

wrightiana)    

Four-o'clock  family  

Fritillaria  (fritillary)  _.._ 

atropurpurea  (purplespot  f.) 

meleagris   (checkered  f.) 

pudica   (yellow  f.) 

Froelichia   (snakecotton)    

arizonica    (Arizona  s.)  

campestris  

floridana   (Florida  s.) 

campestris  (plains  s.) 

gracilis  (slender  s.) 

Fumaria  officinalis   (fumitory) 

Fumariaceae  

fumitory  (Fumaria  officinalis) 

Fumitory  family 

funnel-lily  (Anrlrostephium)  _. 

blue  (A.  caeruleum) 

purple  (A.  breviflorum) 


PaKe 

43 
151 

7-11 

41 
218 


90 

56 

56 

148 

72 

80,81 
56 

23 

118 

105,111 

111 

112,113 

111,112 

112 

108 

112 

112 

105 

34 

35 

34,35 

35,36 

102 

102 

102 

102 

102 

102 

216 

216 

216 

216 

20 

20 

20 


garlic  (Allium  sativum) 15 

Canada  (A.  canadense)  15 

field   (A.   vineale)  15 

meadow      —  15 

Geranium   (geranium)     ... 155 

viscosissimum  (sticky  g.) 185 

geranium,  feather  86 

geranium,  wild  .155,171 

giantfennel  (Ferula)   41 

common  (F.  communis)  41 

Gilmania   luteola    (goldcarpet)  64 

glacierlily 33 

Gladiolus  (gladiolus)  56 

glasswort  (Salicornia)  85,  94 


Page 

glasswort    ( Salicornia )  — Continued 

marshfire  (S.  europaea)  94 

Rocky  Mountain  (S.  rubra)  94 

Utah  (S.  utahensis)  94 

globe-amaranth  (Gomphrena)  99,  103 

common  (G.  globosa)  103 

shining  (G.  nitida)  103 

Sonora  (G.  sonorae)  103 

tufted  (G.  caespitosa)  103 

globeflower  (Trollius)  202 

American  (T.  laxus)  202 

white  (T.  albiflorus)  202 

globetulip  29 

goldcarpet  (Gilmania  luteola)  64 
gold-eardrops  (Dicentra 

chrysantha)    220 

goldenseal  (Hydrastis 

canadensis)    143 

goldpoppy  (Eschscholzia)  207,  208,  210 

little  (E.  minutiflora)  212 

Mexican  (E.  mexicana)  213,  214 

goldstar  (Crocidium)  20 

goldenstar    (Chrysogonutn)    ....  20 

goldenstars    20 

goldthread  (Coptis)    .   169 

common  (C.  trifolia)  170 

cutleaf    (C.   laciniata)        ..  170 
Greenland  (C.  trifolia 

groenlandica)    170 

western   (C.  occidentalis)     .  .  170 

Gomphrena    (globe-amaranth)     99,  103 

caespitosa   (tufted  g.-a.)  103 

globosa  (common  g.-a.)  103 

nitida    (shining   g.-a.)  103 

sonorae   (Sonora  g.-a.)  103 

Good  King  Henry   (Chenopo- 

dium   bonus-henricus)   86 

goosefoot  (Chenopodium )  85,  86 

dark   (C.  atrovirens)  86 

blite  --  89 

Fremont  (C.  fremontii)  86 

Jerusalem-oak  (C.  botrys)  86 
lambsquarters  (C.  album)   86,  87,  88 

raggedleaf  (C.  incisum)  88 

slimleaf   (C.  leptophyllum) ..  88 

white  86 

wormseed  (C.  ambrosioides 
and  var. 

"anthelminticum")  86 

Goosefoot  family 85 

Grayia   (hopsage)   85 

greasewood   (Sarcobatus)   85 

greenbrier    (Smilax)    55 

California  (S.  calif ornica)  —  55 

laurel  (S,  laurifolia) 55 

greenmolly  93 

grenouillet   190 

groundcedar  (Lycopodium 

complanatum)     6 

groundpine   (Lycopodium 

obscurum)    6 

grouseweed    65 

gumjoint    (Anulocaulis)    116 


244        AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK   IHl,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


f{uniM-i-(l    (Coinniicarpua 

ncandens)     116 

(jioianinpil        _ -  108 

(ivpHophila  paniculata 

(habvshroalh)  123; 

hakshi — chekpa-walicka 147 

Halerpestes        _ _ — 190 

cymbalaria 198 

Hnlogrton  glomeratu* 

(halog«'ton)    91,92 

hartshorn  147 

hatechi    88 

headache-plant    147 

Hellebore  tribe    - 154 

Helleboreae       154 

llelleborus   (hellebore)   — .  44,154 

it'iBPr  (Christmasrose;  black 

h.)  45,154 

orirnlalis    (Lenlenrose; 

Oriental  h.) 154 

Uelonins  bullata   (swamppink)  38,  42 

Helonieae        38 

Hemerocallideae  ..-. 26 

Hemerocallis  (daylily)  —  26 

herb-Purh    (Paris)     26 

Herb-Paris  tribe 26 

llormiilium  alipea 

(hcrmirliuin)         ._ —  109 

Hpsperocallin  undulata 

(descrllily)  25 

Hesperocnide    (hesperocnide)  62 

tenella    (California   h.)  62 

Hesperonia    Ill 

bigelovii  Ill 

retrorsa    _  111 

Hcsperoscordum  21 

hyacinthinuin    23 

lacteum  ..  _ _ 23 

hogweed   100 

Hollisteria  lanata   (hollUleria)  64 
hollyfern,  giant  (Polystichum 

munituin) 9 

holl  If  grape         206 

HoloHtPuin  umbellatum 

(holosteuni)     133 

Honkenya                    128 

oblovgifolia   128 

peploides    (sea-purslane)    ..-.  128 

major     128 

oblongifolia  _ —  128 

robiista  128 

Hookera   21 

capiiata    _ 22 

corojiaria  21,22 

donglasii    22 

hyacinthina   - _ 23 

laxa  _ -  22 

peduncularis    . 22 

Hopiweed  ( Acanthochiton 

tvrightii)          — 99 

hopsage  (Grayia)  85 

horsetail  (Equiaetum.)  3 


horsetail    (Equisetum) — Continued 

field    (K.    arvcnm')  3 

KanHU»4  (K.  kanminnin)  5 

niur><h    (K.   prditxlrr)  4 

meadow  (E.  pratenne)  4 

smooth  (E.  lucvigatum)  5 

variegated    (E.  variegutuni)  5 

Horsetail  family  2 

HydaalyliiH   (hydastyluH)  56 

Hydrnatin  canadensis 

(goldenseal)  143 


Illecebraceae 

Indianlettuce  (Montia) 

asarumleaf  (M.  asarifolia) 
ChamiHso  (M.  chamissoi) 
lineleaf    (M.   linearis) 
Siberian  (M.  sibirica) 

Indian-potato — 

Indian-tobacco  

inside-out-flower 

Ipomoea 

jalapa   

purga    _ 

Iresine    (bloodleaf)    — . 

herbstii    (Ilerbst    b.) 
heterophyllu   (variable  b.) 
lindenii    (Linden   b.) 

Iridaceae    

Iris   (iris)   

florentina 


gernianicn    (German    i.) 

florentina    (orri.sroot    i.) 
hartwegii   (foothill  i, 

Hartweg  i.)       

macrosiphon   (tube  i, 

ground  i.)       

niissouriensis  (Rocky 

Mountain  i.)    

pallida   (sweet  i.) 
pseudacorus   (yellowflag  i.) 

Sierra  

tenax   (Oregon  i.) 

versicolor   (blueflag  i.) 
virginica     (Virginia    i.) 
Iris  family 

Isopyrunt    (iwopvrum) 
halUi  (Halls  i.) 
occidentale   (California  i.) 
slipilatum    (Siskiyou   i.) 

jalap  (Exogonium  jalapa) 

Jalapa  

Jamesia    

Jerusalem-oak  - 


jimmyfern  (Notholtiena  sinuata 

cochisensis) 
Jumellea  fragrans 

(Bourbontea)     - 

jump-up-and-kiss-me  — — 

Kenilworth-ivy  (Cymbalaria 

niuralis)    


123 
119 
119 
120 
120 
120 
117 
65,72 
207 

111 

111 

99, 103 

103 

103 

103 

13,56 

13,56 

57 

57 

57 

59 

59 

57,58 

57 

57 

59 

57 

57 

57 

56 

189 

189 

189 

189 

111 

111 

69 

135 

9 

62 
122 


198 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


245 


Page 

lowtgrass       79 

knotweed    (Polygonum)    64,  72,  74 

box  (P.  buxiforme)  79 

Davis  (P.  (lavisiae)  82 

Douglas  (P.  tlouglasii) 77 

mountain  (P.  inontanuni)....  77 

Newberry   (P.  netcberryi) 82 

prostrate   (P.  aviculare) 79 

Saguache  (P.  sawatchense)..  79 

shore           79 

Kochia  (kochia)              85,91 

americaiia    (greenmoUy   k.)  -  93 

americana  calif ornica  _.  93 

americana  vestita 93 

californica  (California  k.)-—  93 

scoparia    (summercypress)   _  93 

vestita  (gray  k.,  hairy  k.) ....  93 

Kruhsea  (kruhsea)  23 

lady  fern  ( Athyriutn  filix- 

fetnina)     8 

ladyslipper    (Cypripediutn)    ___.  62 

European  (C.  calceoliis) 62 

small  yellow  (C.  c. 

parviflorum)    62 

ladysthumb   (Polygonum,  sec. 

Persicaria  in  part) 72 

bigroot   (Pol.  muhlenbergii)  80 

princesplume    (P.   orientale)  79 

spotted   (P.  persicaria) 80 

water  (P.  amphibium) 79 

Laothoe  pomeridiana  25 

larkspur  (Delphinium)  154,  171 

Anderson   (D.  andersonii)  ...  180 

Barbey  (D.  barbeyi).     113, 182,  184 

barestem    (D.  scaposum) 181 

Browns  (D.  brownii) 171,186 

Chamisso  (D.  chamissonis) ..  171 

Columbia   (D.  nuttallii) 177 

duncecap  (D.  occidentale)  187 

Geyer   (D.  geyeri) 189 

giant  (D.  robustum)  188 

Harney  (D.  diversifolium 

harneyense)  181 

little    (D.   6ico/or>   174, 175, 178, 180 
Menzies  (D.  menziesii). llS,  179,  180 

Nelson  (D.  nelsonii) 178,  180 

Nuttall  (D. 

nuttallianum)    174,  177,  178 

orange  (D.  nudicaule) 181 

plains    189 

rocket  (D.  ajacis)  171 

Sierra  (D.  glaucum)  173,  186 

slender  (D.  diversifolium)..  181 

slim    (D,  depauperatum) 174,  177 

Sonoma  (D.  lutem) 181 

spreading  (D,  patens) 176 

spring  178 

stavesacre    (D.  ataphisagria)  174 

tall  mountain 182 

thickspike  (D.  stachydeum)  182,  189 
Tracy  (D.  decorum 

iracyi)  176 


larkspur   (Delphinium) — Continued 
Wright  (D.  scopulorum)     .182,  183 

yellowtinge   (D.  decorum)  ...  176 

larkspurs 

low 174 

medium 180 

spring  174, 177, 180 

tall .180, 182 

Lastarriaea  chilensis 

(lastarriaea)     64 

leatherflower  (Viorna  sec.  of 

Clematis)    148 

leatherflower,  Douglas 149 

leek  (Allium  porrum) 15 

lily  (A.  moly) 15 

Lentenrose  (Helleborua 

orientalis) 154 

Lepidiuni    116 

Leucocrinum  montanum 

(common  starlily)    26 

Lewisia  (Lewisia)   118 

pygmaea   (least  1.)   118 

rediviva    (bitterroot)    118,  119 

licorice-fern  (Polypodiuni 

glycyrrhiza)  9 

Liliaceae 12 

Lilioideae  27 

Lilium   (lily) 35 

columbianum   (Columbia  1.)  36 
ingramii  (Ingram  Columbia 

1.)    36 

ruhescens  (chaparral  1.) 36 

tigrinum   35 

Washingtonianum 

(Washington  1.) 37 

lily  (Lilium)  35 

chamise 36 

chaparral  (L.  ruhescens) 36 

Columbia  (L.  columbianum)  36 

Columbia  tiger   36 

Ingram  Columbia  (L. 

columbianum)     36 

lilac  36 

Oregon   36 

redwood    36 

Shasta    37 

Washington  (L. 

washingtonianum) 37 

Lily  family  12 

lily-of-the-valley  (Convallaria 

majalis)    14 

Lily  subfamily 27 

Limnia   118, 119 

asarifolia  119 

perfoliata  120 

lipfern    (Cheilanthes)    12 

little  boy's  breeches  220 

Lloydia   serotina    (alplily) 37 

lobelias  50 

Loeflingia    (loeflingia)    134 

squarrosa    134 

love-lies-bleeding  (Amaranthus 

caudatus)   100 


246        AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  1(51,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Page 

Lychnis  (oanipion)  134,  135 

drunimomlii  (Driiniinonrl  r.)  135 

flos-cnciili  (rajrft«'H-robin)  135 

Lycopodiaceae  5 

Lycopoilium    (rliibnioss)  6 

clavatum    (runningpiiie)  G 

complanatum    (ground- 

oedar)        6 

fldbelli forme    - 6 

obscitrum    (groundpine)    .  6 
Lysichiliiw    (yellow-skunk- 

cabbagc)  45 
anipricanuiti    (American 

y.-s.)              ^                     -  45 
canitschatcense   (Kamtchatka 

y.-s.)    45 

Macleaya    (plumepoppy)     208 

Macroscapa  — .    '      21 

Mahonia    (niahonia)    206 

MainntltPinum    (bcadruby)   13,23 

maidenhair  (Atlinntum 

pp(latum)  7 

malefern  (Dryopteria  filix- 

tnas)    — - 8,  12 

mavijseed  -^ 134 

marigold  (Tagetps)    166 

mariposa   (Calochortus)    .13,  29,  51,  52 

broadfruit  (C.  nitidus) 32 

Gunnison   (C,  giinnisonii)  30,  31 

Northwestern  (C.  plpgans)   29,30,31 
sagebrush  (C.  macrocarpus)  31 

skyblue  (C.  coprulpus)  29,  30,  48 

Mariposa-lily  29 

mariposa-tidip  29 

marshmarigold  (Caltha)  166,  182 

common  (C.  palustris)      166,  168 

elkslip   (C.  Ipptosppala)  167,  168 

Honell   (C.   biflora  howpUii)  167 

roundleaf  (C.  Ipplosppala 

rotitttdifolia)  167 

twinflower  (C.  biflora)  167 

marvel-of-Peru  105,  111 

Matilija-poppy  (Romneya 

coulteri)   .- 208 

mayapple  (Podophyllum)    206 

mayflower  147 

nieadowrue  (Thalictritni)  150,  189 

alpine   (T.  tdpinnm)  151 

bigfruit  (T.  nincrocarpuni)  151 

dusty  (T.  ritgositin)  _ 151 

earlv    (T.    dioicunt) 151 

Fendler   (T.  fpiullpri)  .   .  151 

low  (T.  minus)  ....  150 

Sierra   (T.  polycarpum)  151 

snoutseed  (T. 

rhynchocarpum)  151 

veiny  (T.  vpiiulosum)      151 

western  (T.  occidpntale)  153 

yellow    (T.   flnvitm)    151 

Meconella  208 

Melandriiim      135 

Melanthiaceae  .._ 37 


PaBe 

Melanthioideae  13,37 

Mplanthium    (bunchflower)  42 

Mexican-star   (Milla   biflora)  20 

Mexican-tea  86 

Milla   biflora    (Mexican-star)  20 
minersletluce  (Montia 

pprfoliata)    120 

Mhiuartia          124 

Mirabilis    (four-o'clock)    105,111 

bigplorii  (wishboneplant, 

Bigelow  f.)  Ill 

rptrorsa 111 

hirsnta 114 

jalapa    (common   f.) 105,111,112 

linearis  subhispida  114 

Ion gi flora   (longtube  f.)  112 

tvrightiana  (Wright  f.)  112 
HI li/fi/Zorn  (Colorado  f.)  112,113 
oxrbaphoidps  (um  brpllawort 

f.)    112 

retrorsa    111 

wrightiana  112 

Mophringia  (moehringia)  .  41,  128,  129 

latpriflora    (bluntleaf    m.)  129 
macrophylla    (longleaf   m.)    129,  138 

molly,  gray 93 

molly,  green 93 

nioly    15 

monkshood  (Aconitum)  .154,171,185 
aconite  (A.  nappllus)       154,  155,  158 

Baker  (A.  bakpri)  158 

Columbia  (A. 

columbianiim)     155,  156 

Monolppis  (monolepis)  93 

nuttalliana  (Nuttall  m.)  93 

moonpod    (Splinocarpus)    116 

Montia   (Indianlettuce)  117,119 

asarifolia    (asarumleaf   I.)  119 

chamissoi  (Chamisso  I.)  120 

chamissonis                       ....  120 

linparis    (lineleaf   I.)           120 

pprfoliata    (minerslettuce)    ..  120 

sibirica    (Siberian    I.) 120 

Montiastrum   119 

lincare    120 

Moraceae   — 62 

monntainbell 44 

mountainfringe    (Adlumia)  219 

)noit)itainlily  26 
mountainsorrel  (Oxyria) 

alpine    (O.   digyna) 84 

mouse-car           130 

mousetail  (Myosurus)  149 

Muhlpnbprgia  aspprifolia 

(alkali   muhly)    ._. ...  94 

muhly,  alkali  (Muhlpnbprgia 

aspprifolia)  94 

Muilla   (muilla)           20 

maritima  (sea  m.). _  21 

Myosurus   (mousetail)   ..  149 

Naiocrene  119 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


247 


Page 
I\arthecium   (hog-asphodel)     37,41,42 
californiciim    (California 

b.-a.)              41 

l\einacaiilis  demitlata 

(woollvheads)    64 

Nemastylis   (neniastylis)    56 

Xemexia  lasioneuron  55 

JSephrolepls    (swordfern)    9 

nettle    (Urtica)    62 

bigsting    (V.   dioica) 62,64 

blunttooth  (U. 

chaniaedryoides)  62 

clog  (11.  urens)    62 

Lyall   (V.  hallii)  62,  64 

narrowleaf  (V.  gracilis) 62 

Roman   (U.  pilulifera) 64 

Nettle  family -  62 

nigger-babies  .„_. .— .  60 

niterwort  (ISitrophila 

ocvidentalis)    94 

ISitrophila        85 

occidentalis  (niterwort)  94 

I\olina    (nolina)    27 

microcarpa   (sacahuista)  _.  27 

Nolina  tribe  27 

Nolineae  — 27 

!\ostoc    (nostoc)    2 

ISotholaena    (cloakfern)    8, 12 

cochisensis   9 

sinuata   (bulb  c.) 8 

cochisensis  (jimmyfern)  ..  9 

crenata  9 

integerrima   9 

Mothoscorduin    (falsegarlic)   ....  21 

bivalve  (yellow  f.) 21 

texanum  (Texas  f.) „  21 

Nyctaginaceae 105 

iSyctaginia  capitata  107 

Obione  svckleyana 98 

Ochrocodon  pudicus  35 

Odontostomum  hartwegii 

(odontostomum)     25 

Odostemon  _.  206 

Okeuia    105 

Olsynium 56,  5"9 

douglasii 60 

onion  (Allium)  _  14,  51,  52 

alpine  meadow 15 

blueglobe   (A.  caeruleunt )  ...  15 

Brandegee  (A.  brandegei)  ...  19 

dusky  (A.  campanulatum)  ..  19 

garden  (A.  cepa)  15 

Geyer  (A.  gereri) 19 

Idaho  (A.  fibrillum) 18 

Kunth  (A.  kunthii) 19 

large   .  15 

Naples  (A.  neapolitanum )  15 

nodding    (A.    cernuum)     16,  17 

Pacific  (A.  validum)      15 

serrate  (A,  serratum )  19 

shortstyle   (A.  brevistyluni)..  15 

sickleleaf  (A.  falci folium)...  19 


Patje 

onion  (Allium) — Continued 

sivamp  15 

tall 15 

tapertip  (A.  acuminatum)  ...  15 

textile  (A.  textile)       19 

Tolmie    (A.   tolmiei)     19 

twincrest    (A.   bisceptrum).  .  19 

twinleaf  (A.  anceps) 19 

Onion  subfamily  14 

Onion  tribe    — -  14 

Orchid  family  61 

Orchidaceae  -..- 61 

Orchis  (orchis)  62 

Oreobroma  118 

grayi  118 

pygmaeum  -  118 

Oveolirion 56,  59 

Orogenia    223 

Oxybaphus  (umbrella- 
wort)     -105, 107, 114 

angustifolius  114, 115 

coccinea   (scarlet  u.) 116 

comatus   (sticky  u.)     114 

hirsutus    (hairy  u.)    114 

linearis   (narrowleaf  u.) 114 

decipiens     114 

subhispida    114 

melanotrichus   114 

Oxyria  (mountainsorrel) 

(ligyna   (alpine  m.) 84 

reniformis   85 

Oxytria 26 

Paeonieae  203 

Paeonia    (peony)    182,  203 

albi flora 203 

arborea  203 

brownii  (Browns  p.) 203,206 

californica   206 

calif  arnica  (California  p.)     -  206 

edulis :  203 

fragrans  203 

lactiflora  (common  p.) 203 

moutan  203 

officinalis    (drug   p.) 203 

suffruticosa    (tree   p.) 203 

Papnver   (poppy)    208,209,216 

cfdifornicum    (mission  p.)     -  215 

heterophyllum  215 

somniferum  (opium  p.) 208,215 

Papaveraceae    207 

Parideae  26 

Parietaria    (pellitory)    62 

officinalis    (wall  p.) 62 

Paris    (herb-Paris)    26 

Parmelia  molliuscula 

(bareground  parmelia)  — .  2 

parsnip,  poison  69 

pasqueflower  (Pulsatilla)  .         147,  197 

American  (P.  ludoviciana)  ..  147 

European  (P.  vulgaris) 148 

spreading  (P.  patens) 147 

patota  94 


248   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


poarlworl  (Sagina)    

arctic    (S,  saginoidea). 

Pellaea   (cliffbrake)   

pellitory  (Parietaria)  

wall  (P.  officinalis) 

peony  (Paeonia) 


Page 
133 

133 

12 

62 

62 

182 

Browns  (P.  brownii) 203,  206 

California  (P.  californica)  206 

common    (P.   lacti flora) 203 

drug   (P.   officinalis) 203 

tree   (P.  suffruticosa)...- 203 

Peony  tribe  203 

pepperplant  79 

Persicaria    . 72,  74,  79 

amphibia 79 

maculosa    80 

mitis   80 

miihlenhergii  80 

omissa 80 

orientalis   79 

persicaria 80 

water 79 

Perubalm,  flatweed  (Roubieva 

multifida) _ 85 

pheasant-eye   143 

Phyllogonum  luteolum, 64 

pickleweed   ( Allenrolfea)   85 

pigweed    86, 100 

pinelily  38 

pink  (Dianthus)  123,  130 

clove  (D.  caryophyllus) 123,130 

Deptford  (D.  armeria) 130 

grass  130 

pink  135 

cushion  ._ 136 

fringed  Indian 137 

Pink  family  123 

Pisonia    105 

PlatYstemon   (platystemon)    ...  207,  208 

californicus   (creamcups)        207,  215 

plumepoppy   (Macleaya)  208 

Podophyllum    (mayapple)    206 

poison-camases   50 

poison-segos  50 

poison-soaproots    _ 50 

polycarp  134 

Polycarpon  (allseed)  134 

depressant    (California  a.)--  134 

tetraphyllum  (fourleaf  a.)  134 

Polygonaceae    — 64,  65 

Polygonatae  23 

Polygonatum    (Solomonseal)    ..      20, 23 
Polygonum    (knotweed)    .         64,72,74 
amphibium   (water 

ladysthumb) ._  79 

aviculare    (prostrate   k.) 79 

aviculare  bnxiforme 79 

bistorta  (European  bistort)  .  75 

bistortoides  (American 

bistort)    75,76 

buxiforme    (box   k.)-    79 

davisiae    (Davis  k.) 82 


PaKe 

Polygonum  ( knotweed)  — Continued 
douglasii  (Douglas  k.)  77,78,79 

douglasii  latifoUum  77 

douglasii  montanum- 77 

emcrsum  80 

montanum    (mountain  k.)  77 
muhlenbergii   (bigroot 

ladysthumb)     80 

netcberryi   (Newberry  k.) 82 

omissum    (glandular 

smartweed)     80 

orientale  (princesplume 

ladysthumb) 79 

persicaria  (spotted 

ladysthumb) 80 

phytolaccae folium    ( pokeweed 

fleeceflower)    80, 81 

sawatchense    (Saguache  k.)--  79 
viviparum  (viviparous 

bistort)    75 

Polypodiaceae  7 

Poly  podium    (polypody)   9 

glycyrrhiza    (licorice-fern)    ..  9 

occidentale  9 

vulgare  occidentale  _  9 

Polypody  family  7 

Polystichum   (hollyfern)  9 

acrostichoides  (Christmas- 
fern)    9 

munitum  (giant  h.) 9 

poppy  (Papaver)   208,209,216 

mission   (P.  calif  or  nicum)  ...  215 

opium  (P,  somniferum) 208,  215 

Poppy  family  207 

poppy,   thistle   209 

Portulaca   (portulaca)   116,  121 

grandiflora  (common  por.)--  121 

oleracea   (purslane)   121 

pilosa   (shaggy  por.) 122 

retusa   (Southwestern 

purslane)    121 

suffrutescens  (shrubby  por.)  122 

Portulaca  family  116 

Portulacaceae 116 

powdcrhorn  .   130 

pricklepoppy  (Argemone)  —  208,  209 
crested  (A.  platyceras)  209,210,211 
hedgehog  (A.  platyceras 

hispida)          210 

intermediate  (A,  intermedia)  209 

Mexican  (A.  mexicana) 209 

primrose,  cowslip  (Primula 

veris)     167 

Primula  veris  (cowslip 

primrose)   167 

princess-feather  ( Amaranthus 
hybridus 

hypochondriacus) 100 

Psioltaceae       5 

Pteridaceae   7 

Pteridium  (bracken)  10 

aquilinum  (bracken)  10 

latiusculum  (eastern  b.)....  10 


Jil 


,(y 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


249 


Page 

Pteridium  (bracken) — Continued 

pubescens  (western  b.) 10,  11 

latiuscidnm    10 

Ptcris  aquilina  10 

Pterostegia  drytnarioides 

(pterostegia)    64 

Pulsatilla   (pasqueflower)   147,197 

hirsntissima -         147 

ludoviciana  (American  p.)  147 

nuttalliana  147 

occidentalis 147 

patens  (spreading  p.) 147 

vulgaris   (European  p.)  148 

wolfgangiana 147 

purple-creeper — .         108 

purslane  ( Portulaca  oleracea)  121,  122 

Southwestern  (P.  retusa) 121 

pusley  -         121 

pnsley,  hog ..._         121 

pussij-ears   29,  30,  31 

pussypaws  (Spraguea)    122 

common  (S.  umbellata) 122 

Quamasia  ._. 28,  50 

quamash  28 

Qnamoclidion 111 

multiflorum  _..112, 113 

oxybaphoides  112 

quelito  101 

quinoa  (Che  no  podium  quinoa)  86 

ragged-robin  (Lychnis  flos- 

cuculi)    135 

ramie    (Boehmeria   nivea) 62 

Ranunculaceae    44,  143,  206 

Ranunculus  (buttercup)  190 

abortivus    (littleleaf   b.) 197 

acer  190, 196 

acris   (tall  b.)      -- 190,196 

adoneus   (Adonis  b.) 191 

alceus   198 

alismaefolius   (plantainleaf 

b.)   192 

alismellus  194 

hartwegii  (Hartweg  b.) 192 

montanus   192 

alismellus  . 194 

alpeophiltis -         200 

andersonii  (Anderson  b.) 194 

aquatilis    (watercrowfoot   b.)  201 

capillaceus  (hairleaf  w.  b.)  201 

trichophyllus  201 

arcuatus  .  195 

asiaticus   (Persian  b.) 190 

austinae   199 

bongardii   (Bongard  b.) 195 

tenellus  195 

bulbosus    (bulbous   b.)  202 

californicus  (California  b.)    197,  198 

cuneatus   _.  197 

gratus    _ 197 

calthaeflorus 192 

canus   (hoary  b.) 197,198 


Ranunculus  (buttercup) — Continued 

capillaceus  201 

ciliosus   198 

collomae   (CoUom  b.) 192 

cymbalaria  (shore  b.) 198 

alpinus    199 

saximontanus 198 

dissectus  197 

douglasii  . __.  195 

eisenii  .— _ 198 

ellipticus 199 

ereraogenes    200 

eschscholtzii  (Eschscholtz 

b.)   191 

exiniius  192 

eximius  192 

flammula    —  191 

filiforniis 191 

reptans  191 

glaberrimus  (sagebrush  b.)..  199 

ellipticus  199 

greenei   195 

hartwegii  192 

hispidus    196 

oreganus 196 

inamoenus  (smallflower  b.)  -  200 

alpeophilus     200 

latilobus   197 

lyallii 195 

niacauleyi  (McCauley  b.) 200 

niacounii   (Macoun  b.) 196 

oreganus  (forma)  196 

7narmorarius  198 

maxiinus 201 

ynicropetalus   200 

montanensis 198 

occidentalis    (western  b.) 197 

dissectus  (JSlue  Mountains 

b.)    198 

eisenii  (Eisen  b.) 198 

montanensis  (Montana  b.)  198 

rattanii  (Rattan  b.) 198 

ultramontanus  (Elk 

Mountain  b.)  198 

oreganus —  196 

orthorhyncus  (straightbeak 

b.)   201 

alaschensis  (Alaska  s.  b.)  201 

platyphyllus  (great  s.  b.)  -  201 

platyphyllus  _-. ._ 201 

politus -  201 

rattanii  198 

recurvatus  195 

rivularis  196 

rudis  — .  196 

saxicola 192 

sceleratus   (blister  b.) 191,202 

multifidus  200 

tenellus  195 

trichophyllus  201 

tdtramontanus 198 

unguiculatus  192 

utahensis   200 

waldronii   _ 199 


250 


AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Page 

rarebell  45 

redmaids  (Calandrinia  ciliata)  116 

redroot 69, 100, 101 

redsage      93 

Mohave  - - 93 

redshanks  -  79 

reina-de-la-noche    107 

reindeermoss  (Cladonia 

rangiferina)  2 

renoncnlc   190 

Rheum    (rhubarb)    65,150 

palmatum    (sorrel  r.) 65 

rhaponticum    (garden  r.) 65,150 

rhubarb    ( Rheum )    65,150 

garden  (R.  rhaponticum) 65,  150 

sorrel  (R.  palmatum)  65 

rhubai'b 

poor-man's — -  150 

monk's    - — -  151 

riceroot  .— — 34 

richweed  169 

ringwing  (Cycloloma) 

tumble  (C.  atriplicifolium).  90 

rocklily  147 

rockpurslane  (Calandrinia)   _  ..  116 

Romnera  coulteri  (Matilija- 

poppy)    208 

Roubieva  multifida  (flatweed 

Perubalni)    85 

rue-anemone  (Anemonella 

thalictr aides)  189 

rue-anemone    189 

rue,  common  (Ruta 

graveolens)    — 150 

Rumex    (dock)    _ 64,83 

acetosella  (sheep  sorrel) 83 

crispus  (curly  d.) 83 

hymenosepalus   (canaigre)   ..  83 

mexicanus  (Mexican  d.)  84 

occidentalis    (western   d.) 84 

paucifolius   (mountain 

sorrel)         83 

salicifolius    (willow  d.) 84 

venosus  (veiny  d.) 84 

runningpine  (Lycopodiutn 

clavatum)  6 

rushlily  ( Schoenolirion)  25 

Russian-thistle  (Salsola;  S, 

kali)  85,95,101 

Ruta  graveolens  (common  rue)  150 

sabadilla  (Schoenocaulon)       14,38,43 

drug  (S.  officinale) _.  14,  43 

Drummond  (S. 

drummondii)  43 

pinelands  (S.  dubium). -  43 

Sabadilla  officinarurn. 43 

sacahuista  (ISolina 

microcarpa) 27 

sage,  antelope  _ 69 

sagelily  .._ 26 

Sagina  (pearlwort)  133 

linnaei 133 


Papre 

Sagina    (pearlwort) — Continued 

saginoides    (arctic  p.) —  133 

hesperia 133 

sandverbena  ( Ahronia) 105 

redstem  (A.  elliptica)  106 

snowball  (A.  fragrans)  106 

yellow  (A.  latifolia)  106 

St.  Bernard-lily  (Anthericum 

liliago)       25 

Salsola  (Russian-thistle)  85,95,101 

kali  (Russian-thistle) 97 

tenuifolia 95 

pestifer  _ _  95 

tragus 97 

saltbush   (Atriplex)   . 85 

saltgrass    (Distichlis)   ..._ 94 

Santbucus  nigra  (European 

elder)    159 

samphire  (Crithmum 

maritimum)  95 

samphire  95 

Salicornia  (glasswort) 85,  94 

europaea    (marshfire  g.)  94 

rubra    (Rocky   Mountain   g.)  94 

utahensis   (Utah  g.)  94 

sandbell  (Ammocodon 

chenopodioides)  116 

sandcorn  53 

sandlily  26 

sandpuifs  (Tripterocalyx)  106 

sandspurrv  (Spergularia)  134 

red    (S.   rubra)  134 

sandwort    (Arenaria)   124 

ballhead  (A.  congesta) 125,  127 

Burke  (A.  burkei) 126 

Fendler  (A.  fendleri) 127 

fescue    (A.  formosa) 127 

Nuttall  (A.  nuttallii) 128 

prickly  (A.  aculeata)         125 

Siberian  (A.  sajanensis)  128 

Uinta   (A.  uintahensis)  ..  125 

Saponaria    (soapwort)     .    .     130,131 

officinalis    (bouncingbet)    .    .  130 

vaccaria                                    ..  131 

Sarcobatus    (greasewood)  85 

sarsaparilla  (Smilax  in  part) 

drug  (S.  officinalis)  56 

Jamaica    (S.   regelii) 14 

Mexican  (S. 

aristolochiae  folia)  14,56 

Schoenocaulon   (sabadilla)        14,38,43 

drummondii  (Drummond  s.)  43 

dubium    (pinelands  s.) 43 

gracile                           .. 43 

officinale    (drug   s.)    .  14,43 

Schoenolirion   (rushlily)   25 

Scilla  (squill) 27 

indica   28 

maritima _ 14,  27 

Scilleae 27 

Scoliopus   (skunklily) 26 


\    /     \    \\\ 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


251 


Page 
scouring-rush 

common  (Equisetum 

hyemale)    5 

giant  —  5 

stout  (E.  praealtum) 5 

scurvygrass 85 

sea-blite   97 

sea-blite,  Pursh's  97 

sea-onion  (Urginea)  14,  27 

sea-purslane  (Honkenya 

peploides)    128 

seccomaria  131 

seepM-eed  (Suaeda)  97 

black  (S.  nigra)  98 

Pursh  (S.  depressa) 97 

sego-lily  (Calochortus  nuttallii)  32,  52 

selinocarpus  (moonpod)  116 

chenopodioides    116 

Senckenbergia  116 

Senkenbergia 116 

gypsophiloides  116 

shallot   (Allium   ascalonicum ) ..  15 

shieldfern,  marginal  8 

Silene  (silene)  135 

acaulis    (moss  s.) 135 

autirrhina    (sleepy   s.)  136 

douglasii    (Douglas   s.) 137 

multicaulis   136 

hookeri   (Hooker  s.) 137 

ingramii    (Ingram  s.) 137 

laciniata  (Mexican  s.) 137 

Irallii   (Lyall  s.) 137 

menziesii    (Menzies  s.) 138 

multicaulis  , 137 

oregana   (Oregon  s.) 139 

scouleri   (Scouler  s.) 139 

silverplant   69, 71 

Sisyrinchiuni    (blue-eyedgrass)  56, 59 

anceps  59 

an gusti folium   (common 

b.-e.)    59 

bellum    (California  b.-e.) 60 

douglasii   (Douglas  b.-e.) 60 

gramineum 59 

grandiflorum  60 

halophilum    (alkali  b.-e.) 61 

idahoense    (Idaho  b.-e.) 60 

occidentale    (Montana    b.-e.)  61 

radicatum    (sticky-pod   b.-e.)  60 

skookumroot    203 

skunkcabbage    45 

skunkcabbage  (Symplocarpus 

foetidus)     45 

skunklily    (Scoliopus)   26 

skylark   (Alauda  arvensis) 171 

smartweed  79 

smartweed,  glandular 

(Polygonum  omissum)  ....  80 

Smilacina  (Solomonplume)   -_..  23 

am plexicaulis    (fat    S.) 24 

Smilacoideae   55 


Page 

Smilax    (smilax;   greenbrier)..  14,  55 
aristolochiae folia  (mexican 

sarsaparilla)     _ 14,  56 

californica   (California  sm.; 

California   g.')    55 

herbacea    (carrionflower)    ....  55 
lasioneuron    (wooUynerve 

c.)    55 

lasioneuron    —  55 

luurifolia  (laurel  sm. ; 

laurel  g.)    55 

macrocarpa    (Java   sm.) 56 

medica    14, 56 

officinalis   (drug 

sarsaparilla)     56 

regelii  (Jamaica 

sarsaparilla)     14 

zeylanica  (Ceylon  sm.) 56 

Smilax     -   -  20,  23 

Smilax  subfamily 55 

smotherweed   90 

snakecotton    (Froelichia)    102 

Arizona   (F.  arizonica)   102 

Florida  (F.  floridana) 102 

plains  (F.  floridana 

campestris)    102 

slender  (F.  gracilis)  102 

snake-lily  56 

snakeroot,  black  169 

snow-in-summer  (Cerastium 

tomentosutn)  129 

soapgrass  38 

soapplant  (Chlorogalum )  25 

amole  (C.  pomeridiana) 25 

soapwort  (Saponaria)   130,  131 

cow    131 

Solomonplume  (Smilacina)  ....  23 

fat  (5.  am  plexicaulis)  24 

Solomonseal   (Polygonatum)  ..  20,  23 

Solomonseal  tribe  23 

Soma  yem 181 

sorrel 

mountain  (Rumex 

paucifolius)  83 

sheep  (R.  acetosella) 83 

sotol  (Dasylirion)  27 

Spartina  gracilis  (alkali 

cordgrass)     - —  94 

Spathyema  foetida  45 

spearivo7't 

creeping  191 

lesser 191 

Spergula   (spurry)    134 

arvensis  (corn  s.) 134 

Spergularia  (sandspurry)  134 

rubra  (red  s.)  134 

spiderling  (Boerhaavia)   105,  108 

erect    (B.   erecta)  109 

scarlet  (B.  coccinea)  108 

slim    (B.  gracillima)  109 

Spinacia  oleracea    (spinach)  ..  85 
spinefLower,  Palmer 

(Chorizanthe  palmeri)       .  64 


252   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Page 

spleenwort   (Aspleniuin)  12 

Spragitea    (pussypaws)    122 

nuda   122 

umhellata  (common  p.) 122 

springbeauty  (Claytonia)   117,  119,  223 

alpine  (C.  niegarrhiza) 118 

lanceleaf   (C.  lanceolata) 117 

spurry   (Spergula)   134 

corn  (S.  arvensis) _ 134 

squatvgrass    38 

squill  (Scilla)  . 27 

squill,  red  27 

Squill  tribe _ 27 

squirrelcorn  (Dicentra 

canadensis)    220,  221 

staggerweed,  little  220 

star  hyacinth 27 

starlily   ( Leucocrinum )  26 

common  (L.  montanum) 26 

star-tulip   29 

star-tulip,  green-banded  50 

starweed,  James 140 

starwort   (Stellaria)   139 

longstalk  (S.  longipes)  142 

Siberian  (S.  umhellata) 142 

tuber  (S.  jamesiana) 140 

steershead  (Dicentra  uniflora)  223 

Stellaria    (starwort)    139 

jamesiana   (tuber  s.) 140 

laeta   142 

longipes   (longstalk  s.) 142 

laeta    142 

media  (chickweed)  130,  139,  142 

umhellata    (Siberian  s.) 142 

Stenanthella  occidentalis    44 

Stenanthium  (stenanthiunt)  .._.  43 

gramineum    (grassy  s.) 43 

occidentale   (western  s.) 43 

rohustum    (featherfleece)    ....  43 

Streptopus   (twistedstalk)    _.  23 

Stropholirion  21 

Struthiopteris  spicant 

(decrfern)    12 

Stylomecon  heterophylla 

(windpoppy)    215 

Suaeda  (seepweed)  97 

depressa  (Pursh  s.) 97 

erecta  97 

diffusa  98 

erecta 97 

nigra   (black  s.) 98 

Suckleya    (suckleya)    98 

petiolaris    98 

suckleyana   (poison  s.)     98 

sngarbowls  149 

summercypress  (Kochia 

scoparia)    93 

summercypress,  California  93 

summercypress ,  gray  93 

summercypress,  greenmoUy  93 
swamppink  (Helouias  hullata)      38,  42 

Swamppink  tribe 38 

swamp-sego 28 


Page 

sweet-after-death  206 

sweetwilliam  (Dianthus 

harhatus)    123 

swordfern    (Nephrolepis)    9 

sivordfern 12 

Symplocarpus  foetidus 

(skunkcabbage)    45 

Tagetes    (marigold)    166 

Talinum    (fanieflower)    122 

angustissimum    (narrowleaf 

f.) 123 

aurantiacum    (orange  f.) 123 

pulchellum 123 

tanweed 79 

Teloxys  comuta  88 

Thalictrum  (meadowrue)  150, 189 

alpinum    (alpine    m.) 151 

dioicum    (early  m.) 151 

fendleri  (Fendler  m.) —  151 

flavum   (yellow  m.) 151 

glaucum   151 

macrocarpum  (bigfruit  m.)  -  151 

minus    (low  m.) —  150 

occidentale   (western  m.) 153 

polycarpum   (Sierra  m.) 151 

rhynchocarpuni   (snoutseed 

m.)     .-  151 

rugosum    (dusty  m.) 151 

venulosum  (veiny  m.) 151 

thimbleweed 144 

threeleaf 206 

tibinagua   69 

tickseed  (Corispermum)  90, 101 

hyssopleaf  (C. 

hyssopifolium)    90 

shiny    (C.   nitidum) 90 

Tidestromia    (tidestromia)    104 

lanuginosa    (woolly   t.) 104 

ohlongifolia   (honeysweet  t.)  104 

suffruticosa   (shrubby  t.) 104 

Tiniaria   72 

Tissa  134 

rubra  ...- 134 

Tofieldia  (tofieldia)  ..._ 13,  41 

i7itermedia   42 

occidentalis  (tall  t.) 42 

tofieldia,  western 42 

Tofieldia  tribe  .. 40 

Tofieldieae 40 

Torruhia  105 

Toxicoscordion    49,  50,  51 

gramineum 52 

venenosum _ 53 

Trautvetteria 153 

caroliniensis   (false- 

bugbane)    '. 153 

grandis  153 

media 153 

palmata    153 

travelers- joy    148 

Trillium  (trillium)  13,26 

erectum   (purple  t.) 26 

ovatum    (Pacific   t.) 26 


NOTES  ON  WESTERN  RANGE  FORBS 


253 


Page 

Tripterocalyx    (sandpuffs)    106 

ttiicranthus  107 

Triteleia   . 21 

grandiflora    22 

hyacinthina   23 

laxa  22 

Peduncularis  22 

Trollius  (globeflower)  202 

albi floras   (white  g.) 202 

laxiis   (American  g.) 202 

albiflonis   202 

troutlily    33 

tulip  (Tulipa)  -  28 

Tulip  tribe  -._ 28 

Tulipa  (tulip)  28 

Tulipeae  --  28 

tumbleweed    90,  95, 101 

tnrkeybeard  38 

Turkish-rug  (Chorizanthe 

staticoides)  64 

twistedstalk  (Streptopus)  23 

Ulmaceae  62 

Umbellatae  71 

umbrellawort 

(Oxybaphus)     105,  107,  114 


hairy   (O.  hirsutus) 
narrowleaf  (O.  linearis). 

scarlet  (O.  coccinea)  

sticky    (O.   comatus) 

Unifoluan    :. 


114 
114 
116 
114 
23 

Urginea   (sea-onion)    27 

indica  (India  drugsquill) 14,28 

maritima   (shore  drugsquill)      14,  27 

scilla   14,  27 

Urtica   (nettle)    62 

chamaedryoides  (blunttooth 

n.)    62 

dioica  (bigsting  n.) 62,  64 

gracilis    (narrowleaf  n.) 62 

lyallii  (Lyall  n.) 62,64 

pilulifera  (Roman  n.) 64 

urens   (dog  n.) 62 

Urticaceae   62 

JJsnea  (usnea)  2 


Vaccaria  (cowcockle)  

segetalis  (cowcockle)  

vaccaria   _ 

vulgaris    

Vagnei'a  

amplexicaulis    

Vancouver ia    (vancouveria)    ... 

chrysantha    (yellow  v.) 

hexandra    (white   v.) 

Vanilla  planifolia  (Mexican 
vanilla)  

vanillaleaf   (Achlys  triphylla). 

Velezia  (velezia) 

rigida  (stiff  v.)- 

Veratreae 


130 
131 
131 
131 
23 
24 
207 
207 
207 

62 
206 
130 
131 

42 


Pape 
Veratrum    (false- 
hellebore)     13, 14,  37,  42,  44 

album   (white  f.-h.) 45 

Californicutn  (western 

f.-h.)   -.._ _ -.-_  45,  46,  48,  49 

eschscholtzianum    49 

eschscholtzii  (Eschscholtz 

f.-h.)    49 

finibriatum    (fringed   f.-h.)..  49 

sabadilla  43 

speciosian 45 

viride  (American  f.-h.) 45,48,49 

villela    60 

Viorna    —  148 

bakeri  149 

douglasii 149 

eriophora 149 

hirsutissima 149 

virginsbower  148 

Viticella  148 

Wahlbergella  135 

driimmondii  135 

wakerobin    26 

waterflag  56 

waterhemp  (Acnida)   -...  99 

tall   (A.  altissinia) 99 

tamarisk  (A.  tantariscina) —.  100 

watermelon  plant  203 

waterplantain  (Alisma) 192 

water-pepper 79 

Wedelia    107 

incarnata  108 

Wedeliella    ..._... 107 

incarnata  108 

weed,  Indianpipe    . 68 

white-camases 50 

white  hearts .—  220 

whitlowwort  family 123 

wild-crocus  147 

wild-hyacinth    — ._ -  28,  52 

willowweed,  water  79 

windflower 144, 147 

windpoppy  (Stylomecon 

heterophylla)     215 

winterfat   (Eurotia)   85 

wishboneplant  (Mirabilis 

bigelovii)    111 

wolfbane  (Aconitum 

lycoctonum)     154 

wolfbane  154 

woodfern  (Dryopteris)    8 

leather  (D.  niarginalis) 8 

woodsia  (Woodsia)  .-  12 

Woodwardia    (chainfern)    12 

wooUyheads   (ISeniacaulis 

denudata) —  64 

Xerophyllum  (beargrass)  37,  38 

asphodeloides  (turkey beard 

b.)   38 

douglasii   (Douglas  b.) 40 

tenax   (common  b.)  38,  39,  40 


254   AGRICULTURE  HANDBOOK  161,  U.S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Pajfe 

yei   38 

yellorvbell 35 

ycllowroot      -_ 169, 170 

yclloH -skunkcabbage 

(Lysichitum)     45 

American    (L.    americanum )  45 

Kamtrhatka  (L, 

camtschalcense)    45 

ycrba-dc-la-rabia    -.._ 107 

ycrba  del  India  _ 137 

Yucca  (yucca)  ..._ _...  13,  14,  27 

Yucca  tribe  _ 27 

Yucceae      27 

Zigadenus   (deathcamas)   13,16,28,32, 

37,  38,  42,  49,  59, 187 

chloranthus   52 


PaKe 

Zigadenus  (deathcamas) — Continued 

coloradensis    ^ 52 

douglasii 55 

elegans    (mountain  d.)  51,52 

frentontii    (Fremont   d.)  55 

glaberrimus  (Atlantic  d.)  50 

glaucus  (white  d.)  52 

grainineus  (grassy  d.) 51,52 

intermedins  —  52 

paniculatus    (foothill   d.)      51,  53,  54 
venenosus  (meadow  d.)  51,  53,  55,  58 

Zuckia    (zuckia) 85 

zygadene _ 50 

panicled 53 

Zygadenus 49